Civil Engineering Reference
In-Depth Information
more is learned about the process through quality methodologies (e.g., Statistical Process Control: Grant
and Leavenworth, 1995; Designed Experiments: Taguchi, 1986), so the process can change from closed
loop control using performance feedback, to open loop control using valid prediction models (Drury
and Prabhu, 1994). Predictive control allows the process to operate with minimum setup time after a
product change, thus facilitating moves toward just-in-time manufacturing.
The other company response to the quality imperative is the active management of quality. This has
comprised both the realization that managerial leadership is important (Witcher, 1995) and specific pol-
icies for managing quality (Deming, 1986). An obvious policy is the use of teams as both a change agent
(Blest, Hunt, and Shadle, 1992) and as a natural group for controlling a process (Brennan, 1990).
At the same time that these strategic-driven changes in quality have been taking place, there have been
simultaneous programs at other levels. Thus, new technology has been introduced to reduce labor costs
and improve process capability. In response to both rising costs and public
government pressure, there
has been a movement toward managing the costs associated with human errors and injuries. Company
responses here have been injury reduction
/
safety programs (Rahimi, 1995), ergonomics programs
(Liker, Joseph and Armstrong, 1984) focusing on workforce injury reduction, and similar programs
for reduction of the consequences of human error (e.g., Taylor, 1990). These latter are usually termed
“human factors” programs but have many characteristics in common with “industrial ergonomics”
programs. Indeed, programs incorporating both injury and error reduction are possible (Drury,
1995). In this chapter the terms “ergonomics” and “human factors” will be used interchangeably.
With few exceptions, programs arising from the quality movement and the human factors movement
have been simultaneous but unrelated in industry. They have many similarities and some obvious differ-
ences, but there is no a priori reason for them to be separate. The remainder of this chapter takes up the
managerial challenge of integrating these largely parallel programs so as to gain additional benefits. For a
more detailed comparison and discussion of their linkages, see Drury (1996). In particular, that paper
looks at many facets of the quality movement, such as TQM, Quality awards, the ISO-9000 series,
and justin-time manufacturing, while in the current chapter we concentrate on just one (TQM) for
simplicity.
/
6.2 Fundamentals: The Basic Tenets of TQM and
Human Factors
Before we can discuss interactions between the quality movement (e.g., TQM) and human factors
ergo-
nomics, we must at least review their basic beliefs. Both programs “work” in the sense of improving
industrial performance. For example, see Larson and Sinha (1995) for TQM and Drury (1992) for
ergonomics.
TQM is not a monolithic philosophical structure, but rather a set of beliefs built upon the largely par-
allel efforts of a number of early practitioners. Rather than debate the merits of including each tenet, a
recent review paper will be used to provide a convenient synopsis. Hackman and Wageman (1995)
provide a thoughtful review of TQM so that we will use their structure of TQM. Table 6.1 provides
this in outline form and does not appear to contradict the writings of most TQM practitioners, e.g.,
Deming's fourteen points (Deming, 1986). Hackman and Wageman (1995) also note two enhancements
routinely used by (at least) U.S. practitioners of TQM: competitive benchmarking and employee invol-
vement (EI). Benchmarking is the measurement of the level of performance of equivalent parts of other
organizations to provide goals for those processes in your own organization. Goals are typically seen as
being the best available rather than the average. Employee involvement is a generic title for a movement
common in at least the larger companies to extend the employee voice in organizational affairs beyond
the traditional union
/
management bargaining and beyond the roles specified in TQM (Russell, 1991). In
fact, many companies see benchmarking and EI as integral parts of the TQM process.
Finding an equivalent set of basic beliefs or tenets of ergonomics has proven rather more difficult. As
with TQM, human factors has been a largely empirical discipline, which defines what it does rather than
/
Search WWH ::
Custom Search