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COSIMO, UCT, and ACT-R also offer specialized software tools for model simulation and, therefore,
fulfill this requirement partially. Finally, GOMS is the most widespread model of human information
processing and is a “de facto” standard for the investigation of human-computer interaction
(Gugerty, 1993) and fulfills this requirement completely. COSIMO, SRK, and UCT are well known in
their corresponding scientific communities and partially fulfill this requirement. ACT-R is a highly
specialized approach.
In conclusion, Rasmussen's (1983, 1986) model of skills, rules, knowledge, and the abstraction hierar-
chy for knowledge representation (Rasmussen, 1985) in conjunction with additional work on human
reliability modeling (Reason, 1987; Hannaman, 1985), as well as workload assessment (Moray et al.,
1988a, b) represent the framework for cognitive modeling with the highest overall goodness-of-fit in
the application domain of flexible manufacturing. Therefore, this framework was used extensively to
investigate operator requirements for human-machine interfaces of APCs (Schlick et al., 1995), to
design the human-machine interface on a conceptual (Schlick et al., 1996), as well as a detailed level
(Schlick et al., 1997), and to simulate and assess the production system as a whole, which includes
aspects of human error and labor division (Schlick, 1999).
5.5.6 Computer-Based Prospective Job Design and Evaluation with Space
1
as an Example of Work System Design at Level S4
The concept of concurrent engineering (CE) aims at shortening time to market, reducing processing cost,
and improving product quality. It requires, besides, a simultaneous product and process design also a
simultaneous design of the production system (Clausing, 1993; Prasad, 1996). For such an early job
design, tools are necessary, which support the iterative process of design and evaluation of jobs and
tasks in production. In this context criteria of personality development are — among others, for
example, safety and feasibility — considered to be important.
However, the repertoire of methods in CE research lacks instruments, which are especially developed
to allow prospective job design with respect to these criteria within a CE environment. The demand for
such supporting methods and instruments is based on time and cost arguments. In conjunction with
other design instruments (e.g., for industrial organization) they should reveal requirements and poten-
tialities of production as early as possible and assure a fast and smooth start of production process. On
the one hand, there is a need to initiate time and cost-intensive work organizational- and personnel-
related measures in an early stage (in this case the job design is the basis for determination of KSA profiles
for personnel planning; KSA
knowledge, skills, and abilities). On the other hand, there is a strong need
to keep existing staff — especially in times with a shortage of skilled engineers and technicians — and to
ease personnel recruitment (this means the use of human-oriented criteria to create attractive jobs
and to lower staff turnover and absenteeism). The applicability of such methods crucially relies on the
capability to tolerate CE-specific circumstances such as incompleteness of information, frequency of iter-
ation and modification, as well as progressively increasing level of detail (main CE requirements).
¼
5.5.6.1 Basic Concepts and Development of Space
1
Starting from a criteria-based analysis of existing job analysis methods and job design systems and the
ascertained deficits, the system Space
(system for prospective job design and evaluation in CE) has
been developed. The basic concepts of Space
þ
are a modeling concept, a KSA model, and nine assess-
ment models for evaluating designed jobs and tasks with respect to criteria of personality development.
Realized as a software prototype (operating system Linux, programming language C
þ
, development
toolkit QT from Trolltech), it supplies an instrument designed to meet the earlier mentioned CE
requirements.
The modeling of jobs in Space
þþ
is based on Harel's Hi-graphs and his “blob”-notation (Harel, 1988).
Taking up the job descriptor concept of McCormick et al. (1989), tasks and jobs can be described using
“job elements, process elements, and cooperation elements,” provided in so-called “descriptor libraries.”
All elements are linked with sets of KSA requirements. Job elements describe work behavior on a general
þ
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