Agriculture Reference
In-Depth Information
variables may not be effective. For example, subsidies to reduce the cost of con-
servation practices may not induce different land manager choices if the managers
perceive that those practices will increase risk of crop loss, or if the necessities of
off-farm income leave them with few labor hours, or if the practice goes against their
worldview or community norms.
This review and synthesis of literature also highlight the fact that the impact of
some factors is not unidirectional. For example, technology can both encourage and
discourage activities that increase soil degradation. As one study concluded, poverty
often reduces access to technology and thus leads farmers to labor more intensely, which
degrades soil (Barbier 1997). On the other hand, studies in different contexts describe
cases where greater use of particular technologies degrades soil (Andersen and Lorch
1994; Hazell and Wood 2007). As another example, globalization often encourages land
manager choices that degrade soils, but there is at least some evidence that opening up to
global consumers may spur niche markets for sustainably grown products such as coffee.
Mung'ong'o (2009) recommends a political ecology approach that recognizes the
complexity of the sources of soil degradation. Many agree. Because farmers natu-
rally tend to maximize their profits, Botterweg (1998) showed better results by inte-
grating economic and ecological models. Voluntary programs with incentives and
education have been found to work better than compulsory measures in affecting
land manager choices (Grossman 1997).
More effective policies are needed at all levels—farm, community, national, and
international—and they need to be developed with appropriate attention to feed-
back mechanisms (Knowler 2004). Giving more attention to feedback mechanisms
would lead to an integrated soil fertility management approach, as Marenya and
Barrett (2009) suggest, not just promoting fertilizer use in all cases. Maybe the most
important aspect of the design of management measures is farmers' input. This both
respects local knowledge and will be much more acceptable to potential adopters
(Sulieman and Buchroithner 2009; Posthumus et al. 2011; El-Swaify 1997).
In the end, starting with soil degradation and tracing back to the activities that
degrade soil, and then back further to the factors that affect these activities, reveals a
complex system connecting humans to soil. There is no simple solution to the prob-
lem of soil degradation. But better understanding of the variety of factors at play,
how they interact, and which factors are most critical in which contexts may provide
a foundation for success.
ABBREVIATIONS
BMPs: best management practices
DSP: dominant social paradigm
GATT: General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade
MEA: Millennium Ecosystem Assessment
NAFTA: North American Free Trade Agreement
NEP:
new environmental paradigm
OTA:
Office of Technology Assessment
USDA:
United States Department of Agriculture
WTO:
World Trade Organization
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