Agriculture Reference
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under TK on which to build SK for maximizing soil system resistance. Salinization
is expected to become a major threat, and nutrient depletion is likely to be a seri-
ous problem in large areas of Africa. This analysis of soil resilience in the context
needs to be deepened in terms of soil formation and development over pedological
time and what resilience means in terms of human expectations and practices. Soil
formation and development (pedogenesis), a continuous process taking thousands
of years, puts into context the short time that humans have so extensively utilized,
changed, and depended directly on soil (Pidwirny 2006). Pedogenesis is the result
of five factors: the first two are parent material and topography, which are passive
and contribute to soil mass and position; the next two are climate and the biosphere,
which are active and supply the energy in soil formation and time (Olson 2005).
5.5 RENAISSANCE OF TK
Since the beginning of the twentieth century, modern sciences have been chal-
lenged by new scientific insights [e.g., relativity (Einstein 1920), quantum physics
(Heisenberg 1927), and chaos theory (Prigogine and Stengers 1984)]; the changing
interpretations of ways of knowing from other cultures have influenced/diversified the
Western approach to knowledge. Indigenous practices are based on TK, experience,
and insights on how to counteract external forces. The practices are aimed at maxi-
mizing benefits and minimizing the adverse impacts of external forces (Garibaldi
and Musimwa 2000). With regard to the tragedy of the commons, Hardin's commons
theory supports the notion of an inextricable relationship (ties) between sustainable
development, and meshing economic growth and environmental protection, and has
had an effect on numerous current issues, including the debate over global warm-
ing. The approaches are interlinked with reigning economic theory and cannot be
divorced. However, due to intensification of external factors, the practices can be
overstretched and are unable to cope beyond the limits. However, over time, the pres-
sures to meet the increased demands for food, feed, fiber, and fuel have negatively
impacted the TK (Gata 1994).
Initially, research on TK increased as part of the efforts to capture TK in participa-
tory approaches to sustainable land management (Winkleprins 1999). More recently,
the awakening to the depth and value of TK has come from climate change adaptation
studies that have revealed the tremendous power of TK and also the failure of current
development models (Fenton et al. 2007). An increasingly emerging view is that TK
and crop varieties may prove even more important for adaptation. In fact, modern
agriculture has made many rural communities more vulnerable to climate change by
increasing their reliance on external resources (Gata 1994). In the recent past, there
has been increasing recognition of TK based on the persistent failure of agricultural
growth and development approaches (Senyonjo 2009); there is growing interest in
understanding how TK can be combined with SK to strengthen the capacity of soil
to resist changes. There is increasing recognition of TK, giving credence to the very
practices that were previously ignored or derided. ISWC has been mostly developed
under harsh conditions (e.g., dry and marginal lands) and/or on steep hillslopes with
high demographic pressure (Critchley et al. 1994). Literature on TK and ISWC in SSA
is scanty, but Critchley et al. (1994) provide a comprehensive list.
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