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uncertain how to evaluate the end results of tinkering—should evaluation be based
on knowledge discovery, on work methodology, or on aspects of exploration? When
to stop tinkering—what is the definition of 'done'?
Unfortunately, we cannot offer the reader solutions to these important questions
and issues. It is our understanding that these issues must be raised as part of a larger
discussion, involving researchers and lecturers from varying disciplines and learning
environments. At this moment, we cannot extend our contribution to the discussion
beyond observing the need for a discussion.
Observation 4 Aspects of tinkering in research-oriented education require special
attention, such as how to combine the open-endedness of tinkering with more fixed
research agenda, and how to evaluate tinkering results. Existing insights must be
collected and further insight may be developed.
At this point and in resonance with the focus of this topic, we would like to ad-
dress the emerging world as a particular learning environment. Naturally, contrasting
emerging countries from their further developed counterparts requires consideration
of learning environments along a different dimension than used above—a dimen-
sion not spanned by varying types of educational institutions, but by international or
interregional differences in economic status and development.
Grass-roots technology development and associated frugal science (Reardon
2013 ) are relatively independent from economic backing. Although stronger eco-
nomic embedding makes any endeavor easier, if only as an effect of lesser external
concerns or more available time, the cost factor of tinkering-based work is less
discriminating than that of high-end technological work.
Given this relative independence of funding and the increasing availability of
(physical-) digital prototyping tools expressed in Observation 1, grass-roots digital
technology development and education are areas in which emerging countries have
little disadvantage in comparison to their further developed counterparts, and in
comparison to industry and education driven by high-end technology. In particular,
youth in emerging markets have growing opportunities to become users and creators
of low-cost technology, and to understand, own and prototype solutions to their own
problems and dreams.
Observation 5 Low-cost and readily available digital prototyping tools lessen the
gap between economically differing nations or regions, with respect to technology
development in education and industry. This offers valuable opportunities for the
emerging world to strengthen their technological industry, mainly through education.
8.5
Psychological Factors of Tinkering Success
We have argued in a previous section that tinkering aims to teach students more than
technical skills. This implies that, to get the most out of tinkering as a learning tool,
non-technical aspects need to be taken into account. Examples of such aspects are the
psychological concepts of persuasion, motivation and ability (Petty and Cacioppo
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