Agriculture Reference
In-Depth Information
describe agropastoral systems or mixed crop-livestock
systems with extensive grazing where households are
nomadic and their location and livelihood depend on
the system. Agropastoralism has evolved from pastora-
lism that in the future likely will shift to more intensive
mixed crop-animal systems. Range-based systems are
essentially extensive systems characterized by rainfall of
less than 150 mm/year, chronic droughts, and minimal
feed resources. These systems usually are associated with
extensive nomadic and transhumant systems. In the
Balochistan province of Pakistan for example, 93% of the
available 35.7 million hectares (ha) of land is rangeland
that supplies 60% of the feed requirements of sheep and
goats. The average dry matter yield is about 0.5 MT/ha,
and the carrying capacity is about 0.5-1.5 hectares per
sheep equivalent. Within the prevailing livestock systems,
four categories of goat production systems are identifi -
able (Devendra, 2007b):
Rural landless systems
Extensive systems
Systems combining arable cropping (tethering, commu-
nal and arable grazing systems, and cut-and-carry
feeding)
Systems integrated with tree cropping
Rural landless production systems involve a variety of
mitigating practices to overcome the constraints of harsh
environments, namely high temperatures, inadequate
water, droughts, and chronic feed shortages. These systems
are extensive, and are associated with resource-poor
nomads, transhumant or agricultural laborers and seasonal
migrations with small ruminants, cattle, and camels
(Devendra, 1999). Very common in the arid and semiarid
regions, notably Pakistan and India, they also exist in the
Hindu-Kush Himalayan region in South Asia. Movements
follow annual cycles that are triggered by reduced feed and
water supplies, and market opportunities. They are also a
way of life for the poor. Two problems common to these
systems are overgrazing and environmental degradation.
Among the production systems, the extensive systems
are the most prevalent in many regions. Integrated systems
involving tree crops generally are neglected and underes-
timated. The decreased availability of arable land in many
areas and the need for more food from animals can encour-
age the development and intensifi cation of this potentially
important silvopastoral system. One example is the inte-
gration of goat production with production of oil palm
(Devendra, 2004 ).
Ruminant production systems in the developing coun-
tries are unlikely to change in the foreseeable future
(Mahadevan and Devendra, 1986; Devendra, 1989).
However, intensifi cation is likely to increase and a shift,
especially from extensive, to systems combining arable
cropping, will be induced by population growth. The prin-
cipal aim should be improved feeding and nutrition, and
maximum use of the available feed resources, notably crop
residues, low quality roughages, and various leguminous
forage as supplements.
Emerging issues associated with the future of these
systems need to be addressed in an interdisciplinary
fashion. Table 1.11 provides a summary of the broader
livestock systems, priority production systems in rumi-
nants, as well as some of the major issues across regions.
CONSTRAINTS TO PRODUCTION AND
THEIR RESOLUTION
Improved goat production requires an understanding of the
types and extent of the constraints to improve performance
and enhance development and productivity. Both genetic
and nongenetic constraints are involved. The latter group
is more widespread and includes such examples as nutrient
defi ciencies, diseases, and poor housing. Constraint analy-
sis also helps to establish priorities for research and devel-
opment, and in the formulation of strategic programs that
are needs based and respond to farm situations.
One essential prerequisite for improved goat production
is knowledge and understanding of prevailing production
systems, their problems, and constraints that limit produc-
tion. Systems perspectives and analysis enable one to
address these issues, formulate approaches and strategies
that can resolve the problems, improve the situation, and
increase production. Often the research approach has
tended to be top down, whereby perceived and unrealistic
constraints are addressed to seek improvements. Failure to
respond to needs results in the persistence of the real con-
straints that limit production. Even within rainfed environ-
ments in Asia for example, a systems approach can increase
animal production (Devendra, 2000).
The diversity of crops and animals, traditional methods
of farming, the role and contribution of animals, multiple
crop-animal interactions, and numerous problems of
farmers present complex issues that cannot be routinely
resolved. Specifi c problems often cannot be resolved by a
single discipline. This has been a major weakness of many
research programs involved with natural resource manage-
ment (NRM) of the past. Farming Systems Research (FSR)
and systems methodologies can provide new and very
important pathways to promote improvements that can
expand meat and dairy production. More importantly,
innovative, on-farm linkages that involve farmers,
