Environmental Engineering Reference
In-Depth Information
many having policies and commitments on conservation and local benefits.
However, until CBTEs adopt a business, many will continue to struggle and
frustrate the intended beneficiaries, who have not been empowered to recognize
their failings and adapt to improve, or to move on and pursue alternative liveli-
hood options.The review highlights the importance of systematic and comparable
studies in drawing out recommendations for tourism and development interven-
tions (e.g. Blangy, 2008; Jones, 2008; and in Chapter 8 by Suich, and Chapter 15
by Dixey). Using a modified version of the UNWTO/RETOSA questionnaire,
Jones (2008) found a different emphasis of training needs to Spenceley among 27
CBTEs in Latin America, with an emphasis on English language (93 per cent of
CBTEs) and general business management and accounting (89 per cent), with
training in staff and operational development, internet and marketing, and guide
training rated as at least 'necessary' by at least 70 per cent of businesses. Her work
shows that the scope of comparative studies is also valuable in demonstrating
differences between destinations.
In Tanzania, Fred Nelson's analysis shows that pioneering tour operators have
recognized the socioeconomic pressures on both wildlife and the land use system
of pastoralists. This awareness has led to the development of agreements with
village councils (as elected representatives of the pastoralist communities) that are
mutually beneficial. Communities receive annual rents and bed-night payments
from tour operators operating non-consumptive wildlife tourism, and pastoralists
continue to graze their livestock on concession areas on a seasonal basis. However,
the viability of the joint-ventures is threatened by central government's allocation
of the lands as tourist hunting concessions - which appears to be a continual
source of conflict between the parties. Despite this, the level of community-based
tourism investments have risen, particularly where there is strong local gover-
nance and accountability, with open and transparent decision-making processes.
There have also been conservation benefits, with seasonal livestock grazing
practices enforced by village by-laws. However, Nelson warns of major challenges
in Tanzania, including that tourism revenues are often captured by elites in village
governments, rather than benefiting entire communities. Also, government policy
has provided in-principle support for community-based tourism, but legal and
administrative actions undermine it (e.g. by granting hunting companies exclusive
access to village lands, even if non-consumptive photographic tourism is taking
place there). Nelson argues that if communities can secure commercial tourism
agreements that recognize their jurisdiction over village lands, and create
economic benefits, this can support their influence with government to maintain
their resources and be more secure. Security of resources - whether land or
wildlife - is vital in developing stable tenure systems for community-based
tourism. Nelson's work therefore supports the findings of Rylance and Massyn in
this volume.
With a survey of CBTEs in Zambia, Louise Dixey demonstrates that commu-
nity-based tourism can be a useful development tool, if products learn from their
experiences and are market-oriented. Dixey found that only 9 of the 25 CBTEs
evaluated had sufficient information on their income to compare their level of
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