Environmental Engineering Reference
In-Depth Information
Acknowledgements
I am grateful to Anna Spenceley and Dan Brockington for comments made on
earlier drafts of this chapter. Support for the work in northern Tanzania that
provides the basis for this analysis was provided at various times by the WISDOM
Foundation, the Sand County Foundation and the Bradley Fund for the
Environment. My understanding of community-based tourism in Tanzania has
benefited immeasurably from the insights and experiences of many individuals,
but in particular from Sinandei Ole Makko, Dismas Meitaya and Maanda
Ngoitiko; David, Mike and Thad Peterson; Hassan Sachedina, Peter Lindstrom,
Damien Bell, Andrew Williams and Christopher Kissyoki Ole Memantoki.
Nevertheless the author bears sole responsibility for the analysis contained in this
chapter and any factual errors are mine alone.
Notes
1
Kilimanjaro and Serengeti National Parks (out of 14 parks in total) accounted for
about 24 million Tshs out of 33 million Tshs (72 per cent) in total revenues for
TANAPA during the 2004/05 financial year.
2
The lead operator was and remains Dorobo Tours, whose directors, three American
brothers, grew up in Tanzania, developing a deep grassroots understanding of
conservation and development issues. The eldest brother carried out a study of
wildlife and livestock ecologies in the Maasai Steppe in the mid-1970s which
provided a key baseline understanding in Dorobo's later community-based tourism
ventures in the region.
3
Village councils are elected every 5 years and comprise between 15 and 25 members.
The village council reports to the village assembly, which consists of all adult
members of the community. Key legislation is the Local Government (District
Authorities) Act of 1982.
4
In the 1980s and early 1990s village councils had in many instances been given title
deeds, under provisions in the Land Ordinance of 1923, over the village's lands
which gave them freehold ownership. This gave the communities secure title but also
resulted in many village councils, often through corrupt transactions, selling land to
outsiders and the broader community having no legal recourse in such instances. In
1999 Tanzania reformed its land tenure framework so that village councils would be
more clearly answerable to the village assembly and would not hold title deeds but
only be a management authority over village lands (see Wily, 2003).
5
The operators were not to build any permanent structures in the concession areas.
6
The Wildlife Division is responsible for all wildlife outside national parks and
Ngorongoro Conservation Area. The Wildlife Division wrote the following to the
companies: 'The venture you are about to engage in is in keeping with departmental
policy objectives, i.e. enhancing the value of wildlife to the immediate local commu-
nity through fees paid to the village councils. In due course the beneficiaries will
appreciate the value of wildlife to them and therefore be responsive to and responsi-
ble for its conservation … please be informed that your intended operation has the
support of the Department of Wildlife.' (Letter from C. Mlay, Director of Wildlife,
for the Principal Secretary, Ministry of Lands, Natural Resources & Tourism,
Reference No. PA/GWC/177).
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