Environmental Engineering Reference
In-Depth Information
proportion of local people living above the international poverty line (US$1 per
day), which was determined through surveys within local communities.
Approximately 70 per cent of the monthly wage bill was paid to 140 people living
within 20km of the enterprise, and the average monthly wage was R2500
(~$357). Local employees effectively earned $12 per day and therefore had the
capacity to support their estimated 7-8 dependants to a level just above the
poverty line, on $1.5 per person, per day. Cumulatively, local employment from
Sabi Sabi was estimated to have lifted between 980 and 1120 dependants in the
local area above the poverty line: or approximately 4.1 per cent of the local
population (Spenceley and Seif, 2002).
Joint ventures
Joint ventures between the private sector and communities who hold title to
wildlife land are also a mechanism for revenue generation in impoverished rural
communities. The Makuleke experience is one that illustrates how the land resti-
tution process that followed the end of apartheid has empowered people who
were disadvantaged during apartheid to generate sustainable livelihood benefits
through wildlife tourism (see also Chapter 4 by Collins and Snel). In 1969 the
Makuleke people were forcibly removed by the state from a 24,000ha area that
they inhabited in the north of Kruger National Park (KNP). They were compen-
sated for their relocation in 1998, with the restitution of their land and the creation
of a contractual park (Elliffe, 1999). A 25-year agreement was forged between the
Makuleke and SANParks to return the ownership and title of the land to the
people, although the title specifies that the land may only be used for wildlife
conservation (Steenkamp, 1998; Steenkamp and Grossman, 2001). The contract
that governs the incorporation of the Makuleke land in KNP enables them to
make sustainable use of specified natural resources (Spenceley, 2005).
The Makuleke initially operated trophy hunting between 2000 and 2003 for
variable quotas of elephant, buffalo, kudu, zebra and impala on their land, earning
approximately $590,000 during that time (reaching $200,000 in 2003).
Subsequently they made a transition to non-consumptive wildlife tourism. This
was due to the perception that photographic tourism would not work together
with hunting in their small area given a limited road network (Maluleke, 2003;
Collins, 2003). This transition has been implemented through joint-venture
agreements (build, operate and transfer) with two private operators: Matswari
Safaris and Wilderness Safaris. Matswari invested up to $1.5 million in The
Outpost's infrastructure, while Wilderness Safaris invested $3.96 million in Pafuri
Lodge. Wilderness Safaris has annually invested more money in wages, conces-
sion fees and anti-poaching in the Makuleke concession between 2004 and 2006
than was generated during the hunting periods. However, the revenue directly
accrued by the Makuleke people (i.e. in concession fees and wages) have
amounted to $54,326 in 2005 and $138,607 in 2006. Although the community
earned more money directly from trophy hunting, the total level of investment in
the Makuleke's land by the Outpost and Pafuri Lodge (e.g. anti-poaching, capital
investment, etc.) is far greater.
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