Agriculture Reference
In-Depth Information
(Anderson, 2008). Extension systems have been closed or underfunded, and thus
many countries lak the institutions that can connect farmers with external agencies
and markets. As a result, new forms of social infrastructure have emerged to build
bonding, bridging and linking social capital. If trust between actors is good, then
transformations in production systems are possible. New forms of farmer-based so-
cial infrastructure include Farmer Field Shools, cooperatives, Rural Resource Cen-
tres, business groups, common interest groups, micro-credit groups and cathment
groups. Many of these help to build farmers' knowledge on particular areas, suh
as pests and diseases, or pluking intensity in tea. Farmers learn best when they are
encouraged to experiment; researhers learn best when they work in a participatory
way with farmers to ensure that plant materials and animals are suited to local needs
and norms (e.g. through participatory plant breeding).
Farmer involvement in all stages of the innovation process is critical, as novel
tehnologies and practices can be learned directly and then adapted to particular
agro-ecological, social and economic circumstances. This is particularly important
where a sustainable intensiication practice or tehnology appears to break existing
norms for farmers, suh as introducing fodder shrubs into maize systems, grasses
and legumes for pest management, early transplanting and wide-spacing of rice, and
adoption of conservation agriculture that involves multiple innovations to replace
ploughing. Farmer participatory researh, on-farm testing, and farmer selection of
plant materials have all been embedded in a number of institutions (Prety
et al.
,
2011).
Concluding comments
Rosin
et al
., (this volume) show how different models of agricultural and food sys-
tems have emerged: aid regimes, US and European models, the New Zealand model,
the green revolution and more. Yet the outcomes have been the same: large numbers
of people are still hungry, environmental limits are being approahed or have been
passed, pressures on agricultural resources will grow, and consumers remain uncer-
tain about how to exert their power and hoice. he disturbing and remarkable an-
nual obesity maps produced by the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
show an alarming year-on-year increase in obesity in the US in just a single genera-
tion. Yet most adults know what to do - eat less, go out more. he hallenge for the
world food system centres on closing the gaps between what we know and what we
must do differently. This means developing new and differing models, culturally-em-
