Traditional and Emerging Feedstocks for Food and Industrial Bioproduct Manufacturing - Food and Industrial Bioproducts and Bioprocessing - page 21

formulations because of its high oxidative stability. In recent years oleic safflower oil has
been preferred over linoleic safflower oil in many products or used in blends.
Historically safflower was used as a source of dye and food coloring, in cosmetics and for
medicinal purposes. Safflower contains both yellow and red (carthamin) pigments that are
suitable for coloring foods and dying cotton and silk (Saito et al ., 1983 ). Safflower seeds,
pollens, florets and oil have been used in traditional medicine (Hanania et al ., 2004 ). For
example safflower oil, called oleum cnicium, is a milder substitute for castor oil, which is
used as an over-the-counter laxative. It has been reported that charred safflower oil may treat
sores and rheumatism and has applications as an antidote for poisons and an agent to induce
sweating to cure fever (Smith, 2005). Safflower seeds are widely used as bird feed because
of their high oil content. Ornaments, wreaths and jewelry made from safflower seeds and
flowers are very popular in Egypt. The spineless safflower is a source of food coloring and
is planted as garden flower in Spain. Dried safflower florets are used as a saffron substitute.

1.3.3.5 Castor

Castor ( Ricinus communis ) beans contain ricin, ricinine and other allergens that are toxic to
humans and animals. Hence, they are not suitable for edible applications and animal feed
unless the toxins are inactivated by steam or other chemical means. Seeds contain about
40-55% oil. Ricinoleic acid (12-hydroxy-9-octadecenoic acid) is the major fatty acid in
castor oil (89%). Linoleic (4.2%), oleic (3.0%), stearic (1%), palmitic (1%), dihydroxystearic
(0.7%), linolenic (0.3%) and eicosanoic (0.3%) acids are also present in minor amounts. The
high viscosity of the oil, which is mainly due to the hydrogen bonding of its hydroxyl
groups, makes it a good feedstock for paints, coatings, inks and lubricants. Castor oil is
suitable for chemical modifications because of the presence of double bonds and hydroxyl
groups in the ricinoleic acid structure (Ogunniyi, 2006). Hydrogenated castor oil (HCO),
which is a wax-like material, is used in cosmetics, hair products, ointments, preparation of
hydrostearic acid and its derivatives, and as wax substitutes and polishes. HCO is also used
as a paint additive, solid lubricant and pressure mold release agent. Sulfated castor oil, also
known as Turkey red oil, is an effective wetting agent that is used in cotton and linen dyeing
and finishing. Dehydrated castor oil (DCO) is desirable in the preparation of alkyd resins
that are, in turn, used in paints, enamels, lacquers and varnishes with high gloss and good
adhesion and wetting properties (Ogunniyi, 2006). Undecylenic acid and heptaldehyde,
which are important intermediates in the preparation of perfume formulations, have been
produced via pyrolysis of castor oil (Das et al ., 1989). E-2-Nonenal, which is used as an
ingredient in natural flavors, fragrances, polyurethane elastomers and foam production, has
been synthesized from castor oil (Kula et al ., 1994 ; Lyon and Garret, 1973 ).

1.3.3.6 Palm

Both palm and palm kernel oil are derived from the fruits of oil palm ( Elaeis guineessis
Jack.), which grows well in tropical climates. Oil palm is the highest oil yielding vegetable
crop (5 tonnes/ha) with a commercial life-span of about 25 years. Palm oil is extracted from
the outer flesh (mesocarp) of the ripe fruit and palm kernel oil is produced from the nuts.
About 20 tonnes of palm oil and 5 tonnes of kernel oil can be produced from 100 tonnes of
oil palm fruit.
Traditional uses of oil palm were very versatile, and every plant part was utilized and
nothing was wasted. Oil palm fruits were used to prepare special dishes and boiled to obtain