Traditional and Emerging Feedstocks for Food and Industrial Bioproduct Manufacturing - Food and Industrial Bioproducts and Bioprocessing - page 20

moved away from cottonseed oil because of its relatively high saturated fatty acid content
and consumer concerns over the adverse effects of saturated fats. Yet, since the announcement
of the FDA trans-fat labeling rule (FDA, 2003a), a reversal has been observed and cottonseed
oil is now back in high demand as trans-free oil. Cottonseed oil is widely used in food
formulations that require solid fat. Cottonseed oil forms

-prime crystals that provide a
smooth consistency, fine texture and plasticity to the products, leading to a pleasant mouth
feel. Zero calorie fat substitutes are also made from cottonseed oil (Akoh, 1998).
Non-food applications of cottonseed oil include soap, lubricant, sulfonated oils, pharmaceutical,
coating and rubber production. A relatively small amount of cottonseed oil is used during leather,
textile, ink, polishes, plastics and resin manufacturing (O'Brien et al ., 2005 ).
Extraction of cottonseed oil produces meal, hulls and linters as co-products in addition to
oil. Meal is primarily used as a protein source for ruminant animals because it increases the
butterfat content of milk. Hulls are used as source of roughage for cattle and a substrate for
mushroom production. Linters are rich in cellulose and used for battings, felt liners and
insulation material (O'Brien et al ., 2005 ).

β

1.3.3.3 Sunflower

Sunflower, Helianthus annuus L., belongs to the Compositae family. Traditionally, calcium
rich seeds were roasted and ground into flour and incorporated in foods, florets were
extracted to obtain a yellow dye, oil was utilized in ceremonial body paintings and residual
plant parts were dried and used as building material (Putt, 1997). Sunflowers are classified
in three groups: oilseed, confectionary and ornamentals, which are planted in gardens to
attract birds. Some sunflower cultivars with large seeds are roasted for snack foods or
blended with other grains to make bird seed.
Whole sunflower seeds contain about 40% oil and 25% protein. Small black sunflower
seeds may contain up to 55% oil. In the 1980s sunflower became a major oilseed crop after
the introduction of high yielding varieties. Linoleic (66-72%) and oleic acids (16-20%) are
the major fatty acids in oil extracted from regular sunflower oil seeds. Saturated fatty acids,
mainly palmitic and stearic acids, comprise less than 15% of the total fatty acids in the oil.
Today sunflower varieties with modified fatty acid composition are available; high oleic
sunflower (80-87% oleic acid and 7-8% saturated fatty acids) and mid-oleic sunflower
(NuSun, 50-75% oleic acid and less than 10% saturated fatty acids). Sunola and Sunwheat
are two hybrids that were developed to overcome harvesting problems faced with traditional
varieties. These hybrids are 25-35% shorter than regular sunflower, allowing the use of the
same machinery used to harvest other grains and canola (Grompone, 2005). With the
growing emphasis on beneficial effects of polyunsaturated fatty acids in human diet,
sunflower oil became a premium oil for many food applications (Carvalho et al ., 2006 ).
Remaining meal after oil extraction is used as livestock feed for ruminants, pigs and poultry.

1.3.3.4 Safflower

Safflower ( Carthamus tinctorius L.) is also an important oil source. Safflower seed is
covered with a tough fibrous hull that protects the kernel. Whole seed and kernel contain
37-45% and 53-63% oil, respectively. Regular safflower contains mainly linoleic (77%)
and oleic acids (15%). Oleic safflower (77% oleic and 15% linoleic acid) was originally
marketed as an ingredient for mayonnaise and a replacement for peanut oil used by the
snack food industry (Goodman, 1964). Later, oleic safflower became an ingredient in infant