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capabilities in order to assess the socioeconomic policy of countries. The
capability approach is also applied in the Human Development Index (HDI),
used by the UN Development Programme (UNDP) for ranking countries on
their “achievement in attaining a long and healthy life, access to knowledge;
and a decent standard of living” (UNDP 2006).
In the present chapter, the capability approach will be applied to evaluate
nano science, technology, and innovation (ST&I) policies in or in cooperation
with developing countries and emerging economies. Are current national
nanotechnology programs expected to contribute to better distributive jus-
tice as proposed by Martha Nussbaum? This adaptation of the capability
approach is expected to enable a longer time horizon and a more encompass-
ing assessment of the potential long-term implications of nanotechnology for
sustainable development.
13.2 Theory of Justice and Capability Approach
13.2.1 Theory of Justice according to John Rawls
In 1971, the American philosopher John Rawls (1921-2002) first published his
comprehensive theory of justice. The revision published in 1999 incorporates
a response to comments and criticism. Rawls' theory of justice is grounded
in the utilitarian ethical tradition, which he criticizes from the perspective
of social contract thinking. Utilitarian ethics can be characterized by the aim
“the greatest good for the greatest number of people.” Rawls is concerned
with the question of how a fair distribution of common goods among indi-
viduals can be argued in a theory of social distributive justice. Social contract
thinkers like Locke, Rousseau, and Kant propose that the institutions of a
just state should be based on a theoretical social contract among the citizens
of that state. Society is interpreted as a form of cooperation to mutual advan-
tage of the citizens. To build up his theory of justice, Rawls assumes an origi-
nal position in which all individual citizens involved in the contract have no
information on their social position, whether they are rich or poor, which
talents and resources are available to them, or in which age they live. This
information is hidden from them by a “veil of ignorance.” In this original
position, it is assumed that the contracting parties will adopt two principles
of justice:
1. Principle of Equal Liberty: Each person is to have an equal right to
the most extensive scheme of equal basic liberties compatible with a
similar scheme of liberties for others.
2. Difference Principle: Social and economical inequalities are to be
arranged so that
