Life Cycle Risks and Impacts of Nanotechnologies - Nanotechnology and Human Health - page 247

TABLE 11.7
Characteristics of Nanomaterial Manufacturing Techniques

Potential for Nanoparticle Releases

Energy
Requirements

Material
Conversion

Material
Efficiency

Manufacturing
Stage—Workplace

Manufacturing
Stage—Environment Processes Media Use Stage

Vapor phase
deposition (CVD,
PVD)

Gaseous Very high Low High Very low Low-medium Low-medium-

high a

Flame-assisted
deposition

Gaseous Medium Very high High Medium Low-medium High

Sol-gel process Fluid or

dissolved

Low Medium-high High Low-medium Low-medium Low-medium b

Precipitation Fluid or

dissolved

Low Medium-high High Low-medium Low-medium Low-medium b

Molecular
imprinting

Liquid Low Medium-high High Low-medium Low-medium Low

Lithography Solid matter High Low-medium Medium Low-medium Low-medium Low

Self-assembled
monolayers

Fluid or
dissolved

Low Medium-high High Low-medium Low-medium Low-medium c

Source: Steinfeldt, M. et al., Nanotechnology and Sustainability . Discussion Paper of the IOEW 65/04; Institute for Ecological Economy Research: Berlin,
Germany, 2004.
a Depending on the fixation of the nanomaterials in the nanoproduct: “low” if encapsulated in a fixed coating; “medium” if encapsulated in coating
attached to a product; “high” if nanomaterials as powder or tube form.
b Depending on the fixation of the nanomaterials in the nanoproduct: “low” if intermediate goods are in liquid form and end products are embedded
within a fixed layer; “medium” if nanomaterials are encapsulated within end products with no long-term stability.
c Depending on the fixation of the nanomaterials in the nanoproduct: “low” if nanomaterials are encapsulated within a fixed layer; “medium” if nano-
materials are encapsulated within end products with no long-term stability or if nanomaterials are encapsulated within a layer attached to a product.