Geography Reference
In-Depth Information
developments (Ley and Olds 1988; Bianchini
et al
.
1992). Cities compete with each other for major
international conventions and sporting events such
as the Olympic Games (Law 1994; Barke and
Towner 1996; Rutheiser 1996) but architecture
and other art forms too (Plate 36.2) can also be
seen as a form of advertising and promotion
(Crilley 1993; Goodey 1994) most obviously in
major developments such as Canary Wharf
(Brownill 1994), and Paris's spectacular Grands
Projects (Kearns 1993). Although often implicit
rather than explicit, much of this literature on
place imagery and representation challenges many
of the fundamental bases of city marketing and, in
this sense, stands in contrast to the first group of
literature identified above.
The third major area of study and perhaps the
least developed is specifically concerned with the
empirical assessment of the impact of marketing
strategies and promotional activities. Much of this
literature tends to be in the form of case studies of
particular places. What is striking, however, is how
frequently the same places recur. On the
international scale, New York, Pittsburgh,
Cleveland, Baltimore, Atlanta, London Docklands,
Glasgow, Barcelona and Paris are among the most
frequently cited, while more specifically in the
British urban studies literature Manchester,
Tyneside, Birmingham, Sheffield, and London
Docklands and Glasgow again appear to be the
most popular locations for study. These case studies
tend to fall into two groups, one concerned with
the 'measurable' impact of marketing exercises, the
other focusing rather more on what such an
exercise means for local populations.
There is very little evidence that local
authorities and other urban managers engage in
any systematic evaluation of their city marketing
activities (Young and Lever 1997), but even when
such evaluation is carried out, its scope is likely to
be limited. For example, in assessing flagship
events, Bianchini
et al
. (1992) note the positive
impacts in terms of visitor numbers, a higher
profile for the city and spin-offs into local
consumer-related industries. These are the main
benefits to which most city marketing agencies
would wish to draw attention. However, Bianchini
et al
. recognise that such events have to be judged
against wider criteria, including some of the less
direct impacts upon local communities. More
generally, some commentators note the serial
reproduction of images and certain types of urban
development (Wilkinson 1992), and the few
studies that are specifically concerned with the
effectiveness of marketed images tend to indicate
very diverse results and to question the efficacy of
the promoted image (Burgess and Wood 1988;
Young and Lever 1997). Perhaps most damning of
Plate 36.2
Gateshead's
'Angel of the North'.
Gateshead has been famous
for many years for using
sport and the arts in
promotional efforts. The
controversial angel seems
likely to become a potent
symbol for the town.
