Geography Reference
In-Depth Information
group—were only really met in ethnic minority
areas. Boal (1978) provided an early attempt by a
geographer to give specific meaning to the term
'ghetto' with his typology of colony, enclave and
ghetto. Boal recognised the diversity of ethnic
areas and the varying contributions of choices and
constraints that led to their formation. The status
of ethnic minorities relates to their migration
histories and to the social distance that separates
them from the charter group or host society.
Jackson and Penrose (1993) argued that terms such
as 'minority', 'race' and 'ethnic' were socially
constructed, the products of specific historical and
geographical forces. Assimilation is a key process,
and whereas behavioural assimilation, whereby
members of a minority group acquire the values
and mores of the host society, is both achievable
and within the control of the minority group,
structural assimilation, or acceptance into
occupational, educational and housing markets, is
much more difficult. Discrimination becomes
active as minority group members are prevented
from achieving structural assimilation, and the
outcome is segregation and disadvantage.
Mason (1995) argued that studies of minority
groups often stress the differences rather than the
diversity. Difference implies a 'norm' from which
some groups deviate and can be 'rescued' by
assimilation; diversity accepts differences with no
necessary imperative of integration. Geographers
have recognised the overarching significance of
this process of discrimination, although Boal
(1978; 1987) and others have shown that some
choice mechanisms are also at work. Boal classified
these as defensive, avoidance, preservation and
resistance and argued that they could be applied,
for example, to some Asian communities in Britain
and to Chinese immigrants in American cities
(Plate 30.1). Preservation is probably the most
important of these choice mechanisms and
suggests that minority groups may want to remain
segregated in order to preserve their language,
religion and culture, which might otherwise be
quickly lost in a new society. Choice mechanisms
are of much less significance where discrimination
is greatest and the facts of segregation are
accompanied by disadvantage, as summarised by
the huge disparities between parts of black inner
cities and exclusive white suburbs in the United
States.
Black minority groups have typically suffered
the worst discrimination and have experienced the
highest levels of residential segregation (Figure
30.1). Despite the establishment of civil rights
legislation and the signs of progress and change, de
Vise (1994) stated that
de facto
residential segregation
in Chicago remained very high. Massey and
Denton (1993) argued that few Americans realised
Plate 30.1
An ethnic area:
New York's Chinatown.
Chinatowns are among the
most persistent segregated
areas and involve choice as
well as constraint. Such
areas allow the preservation
of language, religion and
cultural values.
