Geography Reference
In-Depth Information
It is important to explore why the amount of
resources in what is one of the wealthiest countries
in the world is so clearly insufficient to tackle the
problems of homelessness. One possible
explanation is that homelessness is seen as
individual 'fecklessness' and not an issue that the
government should address. For many Americans,
homelessness is not seen as an issue that merits
substantial government intervention. Other
political priorities are deemed to be more
important, in particular the commitment to
reduce federal taxes for those in work. The culture
of 'individualism', which is so prevalent in the
USA, also has an effect. There is longstanding
hostility to 'big' government, and increases in
welfare intervention are not generally supported
by the majority of the population. As Takahashi
(1996: p. 291) has observed 'policy responses have
become increasingly punitive…at the local level,
there have been expanding efforts both to
criminalize homelessness through anti-camping
ordinances and to prevent homeless persons from
entering and staying in specific jurisdictions'.
increasingly housed the poorest groups in society.
This process of residualisation accelerated in the
1970s. As Power (1993: p. 60) writes, 'HLMs came to
house disproportionate numbers of large households,
of one parent families, of immigrants, and of French
citizens from overseas provinces.' This was
accentuated by 'better-off' residents moving into
owner occupation. The changing economic and
social conditions on many of the large estates in
conjunction with disrepair intensified the problems.
In response to the physical, social and economic
problems on large French housing estates
(Grand
ensembles),
the government developed a number
of initiatives (see Tuppen 1995). For example, in
1981 a national body entitled Commission
Nationale pour le développement des Quartiers
with a budget of 721 million francs (1985 prices)
was set up to improve not only the physical fabric
but also the social and recreational facilities of
residents. In 1983, two other joint initiatives were
established: Mission Banlieus 89 and the Council
for Preventing Delinquency. This was followed
shortly by another important initiative, Guidelines
for the City. This placed a requirement on all
urban communes to develop a
programme local de
l'Habitat,
a local housing strategy focusing on
those who are badly housed or deprived. In 1991,
the national HLM organisation established a job
creation scheme with government for tenants
living on some of the most deprived estates.
The most important recent initiative that the
government in France has undertaken is the
contract
de ville
programme, intended to revitalise areas of
deprived social housing (see Box 28.2). The
contract entails a partnership primarily between
central and local government and HLM social
Social exclusion in Toulouse: the
establishment of
contract de ville
.
As much as 90 per cent of social housing in France is
managed by
Habitations à Loyer Modéré
(HLM)
(housing at moderate rents). There are as many as
1000 HLM organisations managing a stock of 4.6
million dwellings. Financial support and lending
facilities for HLM are provided by the
Caisse des
Dépôts Consignations,
a national savings and
investment bank. Along similar lines to other
countries, social housing estates in France have
Box 28.2
Contract de ville
in Toulouse
Toulouse, France's fifth largest city, is one locality that
has already benefited from
contract de ville
. The
population is currently 3 million, unemployment stands
at 19.7% (compared to a national average of 10.8%) and
the proportion of social housing units is over 55%
(compared to a national rate of 14.6 %). In addition, many
immigrants and ethnic minorities have settled in Toulouse
(comprising 18.3% of the total population). Among the
contract's key objectives under the Right to Housing and
Right to City Life budgets are provision of low-rent HLM
housing units; special allocations arrangements to
improve the social and economic composition of the
estate; refurbishment of 4400 system-built HLM
properties; an emergency reception service for homeless
people; sites for travellers; and 200 new units of
emergency temporary housing. As much as 1.67 billion
francs (£175.86 million) has been set aside for these
initiatives.
