Geography Reference
In-Depth Information
westwards from the land boundary cuts across the
Thai island of Koh Kut. Thailand, on the other
hand, gives maximum advantage to Koh Kut while
conveniently discounting Cambodia's offshore
islands. An equidistance line taking into account all
features gives yet another result. The seabed
contested between the Cambodian and Thai claims
is 19,900 km
2
. Gas and possible oil deposits have
been discovered near the boundary, and the
difference in potential hydrocarbon revenues could
be colossal. Talks have been convened on a number
of occasions in the 1990s to find a solution, without
success. Eventually, the two states might propose a
joint development zone modelled on the 1992
Thailand-Malaysia agreement.
There is a good chance that more and more
boundary disputes will be resolved peacefully in
future, for a number of reasons. First, there are
proven mechanisms to assist with dispute resolution,
including notably the ICJ, and ITLOS in Hamburg.
Second, there are strong economic incentives to
avoid conflict, especially where oil company
investment is sought to explore for hydrocarbons.
Third, modern technology such as GPS and
geographical information systems (GIS) are
facilitating more accurate and rapid boundary
delimitation. Fourth, more alternatives to absolute
state sovereignty are emerging as valuable interim
measures to avoid conflict. On land, there are well-
established buffer zones, international zones,
protected areas, demilitarised zones, no-fly zones
and neutral zones. There are also a growing number
of transboundary collaborative ventures requiring
the surrender of an element of sovereignty in
particular activities in borderlands (Blake 1994a).
Most significant of all perhaps are the sixteen joint
development zones at sea, several of which were
established following failure of boundary
negotiations in the spirit of Article 83.3 of the 1982
UN Convention on the Law of the Sea requiring
states to enter into 'provisional arrangements of a
practical nature' in the absence of a boundary
agreement. Most have been remarkably successful,
and they provide encouraging evidence that states
are finding new ways to organise political space,
which offers hope for the future.
Boundary dispute resolution
The most common means of dispute resolution is
through bilateral
negotiation,
which has the merit
of immediacy and economy, and states retain
control over the process. In particularly tough
cases, a third party may be called in to assist
through
mediation
or
conciliation.
Failing this, the
dispute may be taken to
arbitration,
either by a
tribunal established for the purpose or by an
established authority such as the Organisation of
African Unity. Some of the most problematic cases
may be settled by costly
litigation
before the ICJ or
the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea
(ITLOS). Many disputes are resolved through
negotiations, although the process may be time-
consuming and hard. Paul Huth's invaluable
analysis of 116 land boundary disputes between
1945 and 1990 suggests that fifty-seven disputes
were resolved, fewer than a dozen of which
involved arbitration or litigation (Huth 1996: pp.
195-239). Although nearly half the disputes were
settled, it was no easy matter. In fifty-five cases,
there had been armed confrontations, sometimes
repeatedly, while over 80 per cent had dragged on
for more than ten years, one-third of them for over
thirty years (Huth 1996: p. 31). Overall,
approximately one in three of the world's land
boundaries were contested to some degree in the
1945-1990 period, and the proportion remains
much the same in 1998.
CONCLUSION
Geographers have been very much involved with
international land boundaries for a century or more,
sometimes with considerable distinction. In the past,
they took part in delimitation and demarcation
commissions, wrote academic commentaries, and
drew and interpreted maps. Indeed, few activities lent
themselves so well to the application of geographical
skills. More recently, geographers have been in
demand for their knowledge of maps and
cartography, and the application of GPS and GIS in
the preparation of cases and as expert witnesses. As
described above, geographical training is also
extremely valuable in maritime boundary
