Geography Reference
In-Depth Information
A key feature of Habermas' approach to
knowledge is the recognition that different types
of science have different goals. Each of these is of
relevance for the practice of applied geography.
The empirical-analytical approach using positivist
scientific explanation remains the principal route
to knowledge in applied physical geography,
where a primary goal is the understanding,
prediction and eventual control of environmental
events. Despite the availability of powerful
computer algorithms, however, the complexity of
many physical environmental processes can
confound this prime objective (we need think
only of the accuracy of long-range weather
forecasts or our primitive attempts at earthquake
prediction). In addition, despite a continuing
attachment to positivist science, applied physical
geographers, in particular those working on
environmental problems and management issues,
recognise the importance of human agency in
environmental change and the role of values in
decision making and policy formulation.
Slaymaker (1997), for example, argues for a
pluralist problem-oriented geomorphology in
which the predominant science of positivism is
augmented by a realist philosophy that
acknowledges the effect of social structures and
human geography.
The goal of prediction and control within
human geography—often referred to as 'social
engineering' or the manipulation of society
towards certain ends—is even more problematic
(despite the availability of sophisticated macro-
economic models, few governments can claim to
control their own economic destiny). Generally,
social engineering, such as that attempted in the
neighbourhood planning of the early post-war
British new towns, has been discredited as both
ineffective and ethically unacceptable. Positivist
science, although of continuing value in applied
physical geography, has limited relevance for
applied research in human geography, which
draws its methodology from a larger pool.
In applied terms, the goal of historical-
hermeneutic science is to increase both self-
awareness (by assisting people to reflect on their
situation) and mutual awareness (by promoting
appreciation of the situations of others). The
importance (or usefulness) of inculcating mutual
understanding through applied research is seen
most clearly in situations where it is lacking—for
example within cities, where the stereotyping of
areas and social groups can lead to social tension,
isolation and conflict. The third route to
knowledge, via realist science, builds on the
foundations of mutual understanding promoted
by historical-hermeneutic or humanistic science
and seeks to promote real understanding for
people of their position within the socio-political
structure and of the factors that condition their
lifestyles and living environments. For example, by
explaining the factors underlying the closure of a
local factory, realist science can provide redundant
workers with knowledge of the causal forces
behind the event and thereby empower their
response in the political arena.
Habermas' three-fold typology of science can
be used to characterise applied geographers as
technicians,
agents provocateur
or catalysts for social
change (Johnston 1986), but this would be an
over-simplification. No matter which route to
knowledge the applied geographer adopts and
irrespective of the methodologies employed, all are
moving towards the goal of enhancing human
well-being, guided by the shared philosophy of the
pursuit of useful knowledge for the resolution of
contemporary
social,
economic
and
environmental problems.
A PROTOCOL FOR APPLIED
GEOGRAPHY
Applied geography is an approach that can be
pursued via any of the three main types of science.
Accordingly, there is no single method of doing
applied geographical research. Nevertheless, it is
useful to examine one possible protocol, which,
with appropriate methodological modifications to
suit the task in hand, can provide a framework for
many investigations in applied geography.
The procedure may be summarised as
description, explanation, evaluation
and
prescription
(DEEP) followed by
implementation
and
monitoring
