Geography Reference
In-Depth Information
shifting realities of (urban) life at the threshold of
the new millennium.' In terms of real-world
problems, postmodern thought would condemn
us to inaction while we reflect on the nature of
the issue. (As we shall see below, a similar critique
may be levelled at the Marxist critique of applied
geography that was prevalent during the 1970s
and 1980s.)
The views expressed in the above discussion do
not represent an attempt to be prescriptive of all
geographical research but are intended to indicate
clearly the principles and areas of concern for
applied geography. It is a matter of individual
conscience whether geographers study topics such
as the iconography of landscapes or the optimum
location for health centres, but the principle
underlying the kind of useful geography espoused
by most applied geographers is a commitment to
improving existing social, economic and
environmental conditions. There can be no
compromise—no academic fudge—some
geographical research
is
more useful than other
work; this is the focus of applied geography.
Of course, there will continue to be divergent
views on the content and value of geographical
research. This healthy debate raises a number of
important questions for the discipline and for
applied geography in particular. The concept of
'useful research' poses the basic questions of useful
for whom? who decides what is useful? and based
on what criteria? All of these issues formed a
central part of the 'relevance debate' of the early
1970s, which we examine later. The related
questions of values in research, the goals of
different types of science, and the nature of the
relationship between pure and applied research are
also issues of central importance for applied
geography. These are addressed in the following
sections.
research. In geography, basic research aims to
develop new theory and methods that help
explain the processes through which the spatial
organisation of physical or human environments
evolves. In contrast, applied research uses existing
geographic theory or techniques to understand
and solve specific empirical problems.'
While this distinction is useful at a general level,
it overplays the notion of a dichotomy between
pure and applied geography, which are more
correctly seen as two sides of the same coin. There
is, in fact, a dialectic relationship between the two.
As Frazier (1982: p. 17) points out, 'applied
geography uses the principles and methods of pure
geography but is different in that it analyses and
evaluates real-world action and planning and seeks
to implement and manipulate environmental and
spatial realities. In the process, it contributes to, as
well as utilises, general geography through the
revelation of new relationships.' The conjuncture
between pure and applied research is illustrated
clearly in geomorphology, where, for example,
attempts to address problems of shoreline
management have contributed to theories of
beach transport; the difficulties of road
construction in the Arctic have informed theories
of permafrost behaviour; and problems
encountered in tunnelling have aided the
development of subsidence theory (Brunsden
1985). Applied research provides the opportunity
to use theories and methods in the ultimate
proving ground of the real world, as well as
enabling researchers to contribute to the
resolution of real-world problems. More generally,
Sant (1982) envisaged theory as essential in applied
geography at two levels. First, it provides the
framework for asking questions about the
substantive relationships embodied in a problem
(as, for example, where a model of a hydrological
catchment illuminates the potential effects of a
proposed flood prevention scheme). Second, social
theory provides a normative standard against
which current and future social conditions can be
judged in terms of defined moral goals (which
may address issues such as whether a minimum
wage and basic standard of living should be a legal
entitlement in advanced capitalist societies).
THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PURE
AND APPLIED RESEARCH
According to Palm and Brazel (1992: p. 342),
'applied research in any discipline is best
understood in contrast with basic, or pure,
