Geology Reference
In-Depth Information
Table 4.1. Selected successful missions to the Moon that have returned data relevant to planetary geoscience
(NASA, unless noted otherwise)
Encounter
date
Spacecraft
Mission
Encounter characteristics
Luna 3
a
Oct. 1959
Flyby
First (indistinct) photos of far side of Moon
Ranger 7
July 1964
Hard
lander
4,300 High-resolution images with about 2,000 times better de
nition
than Earth-based photography; impacted in Mare Cognitum
Luna 10
a
Apr. 1966 Orbiter
First object to orbit Moon; measured lunar magnetism and radiation
Surveyor 1
June 1966 Lander
Soft landing in Oceanus Procellarum; transmitted 11,240 TV images
Lunar Orbiter 1
Aug. 1966 Orbiter Obtained 216 images, including 11 of the lunar far side. Medium-
resolution pictures good, high-resolution smeared.
Apollo 11
July 1969
Lander
First manned lunar landing; soft landing in Mare Tranquillitatis; 1,359
photographs, 22 kg of samples returned
Luna 17
a
Nov. 1970
Lander
Soft landing in western Mare Imbrium; Lunokhod I roving surface
vehicle traversed 20 km
Luna 20
a
Feb. 1972
Lander
Soft landing in Apollonius Highlands; 30 g of samples returned to Earth
Apollo 17
Dec. 1972
Lander
Soft landing in Taurus-Littrow Valley; 30 km (lunar rover) traverse;
deployed scienti
c experiments; 5,807 photographs plus 4,710
mapping photographs (from orbit); 111 kg of samples returned
Luna 24
a
Aug. 1976 Lander
Soft landing in Mare Crisium; 160 cm core sample returned
Clementine
Feb. 1994 Orbiter
Global mapping, altimetry, radar
Lunar Prospector
Jan. 1998 Orbiter
Global spectroscopy, magnetometry
SMART 1
b
Nov. 2003 Orbiter
Imaging, spectroscopy
Kaguya
c
Oct. 2007 Orbiter
Global mapping (with relay satellites)
e1
d
Chang
'
Nov. 2007 Orbiter
Global mapping
Chandrayaan
e
Nov. 2008 Orbiter
Global mapping
Lunar
Reconnaissance
Orbiter
June 2009 Orbiter
Global mapping
LCROSS
June 2009 Impactor Water detection
a
Soviet missions.
b
European Space Agency.
c
Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency.
d
China National Space Administration.
e
Indian Space Research Organization.
Earth. LO I, II, and III were so successful that the two
remaining orbiters (LO IV and V) were placed in polar
orbits to collect data contributing to the general knowl-
edge of the Moon and to photograph sites of geologic
interest, such as the Copernicus crater (
Fig. 4.8
) and the
Marius Hills (
Fig. 4.9
).
Collectively, the NASA and Soviet unmanned missions
returned an incredible wealth of engineering and scienti
c
data, much of which remains a valuable resource today.
This period of lunar exploration was particularly impor-
tant for planetary geology because the techniques that are
commonly used to study the Solar Systemwere developed
at this time. Analyses and interpretations of surface fea-
tures, studies of geologic processes in an environment
different from that of the Earth, and planetary geologic
mapping all had their beginning in the 1960s and were
tested through the Apollo Moon landings.
4.2.2 The Apollo era
Prior to the successful landing on the Moon by the Apollo
11 astronauts, a series of pre-landing Apollo missions was
conducted to test critical engineering components of the
spacecraft system. This included the Christmas Eve 1968
trip around the Moon by the Apollo 8 crew without land-
ing, which resulted in the famous image of
“
Earth-rise
”
(
Fig. 4.10
).
Each of the six successful Apollo landings involved
crews of three astronauts, two who went to the surface,
and a third who remained in orbit in the command module.
