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are not antonyms neither are the words “together” and “arbitrarily”. This may mean that
the two classes are only an apparent projection of a two-dimensional structure, in which one
dimension can be characterized as “innate” versus “arbitrary” or “learned” and another
dimension as “constructed together” versus “constructed separately”. With this assumption,
a representation of this structure can be given as the following table.
Together
Separately
Innately
Goals and means are
constructed innately and
together
Goals and means are
constructed innately and
separately
Arbitrarily
Goals and means are
constructed arbitrarily and
together
Goals and means are
constructed arbitrarily and
separately
Table 1. Classification of goal-directed systems
This results in a more complicated structure with four classes. Prior to the consideration of
this structure, it seems useful to raise an issue of whether this classification is fundamental
enough. Undoubtedly, there may be many various sources of classification: for example, the
diversity of goals or the number of levels in the system can be used to classify. However,
obviously, the most important classification should be based on key characteristics of goal-
directed systems. In my view, the table reflects such fundamental characteristics because
one axis is the capability of a goal-directed system to change and adjust and the second
dimension is the relationship between the main components of any goal-directed system, i.e.
its goals and means.
It is easy to discern that two cells in the table correspond to the conventional classes but two
new classes emerge from the other cells. One new class is goal-directed systems, in which
goals and means are constructed innately and separately. Such architecture is, however,
logically impossible. Indeed, if basic goals and means of a certain goal-directed system are
defined at the moment of the creation of the system, then a common configuration
undoubtedly underlies them and they cannot be constructed separately.
The other new class is goal-directed systems, in which goals and means can be constructed
arbitrarily and jointly. If one suggests that the construction of a goal and means in such a
system is a self-organizing process, which is based on an extremal principle, e.g. that the
costs on the synthesis should be minimal, then particular advantages of this class can be
easily revealed. Indeed, because the goal and means in a system of this class are constructed
jointly, there is no need to search among a potentially infinite set of means to satisfy the
given goal; this is a simple solution to the problem of combinatorial explosion. On the other
hand, the possibility to synthesize goals and means arbitrarily indicates the actions of the
systems belonging to this class may be very flexible and adaptive. With such characteristics
of this class, my main idea is that human beings are goal-directed systems in which arbitrary
goals and means are synthesized jointly.
One may propose some objections to this hypothesis. First, if a goal and means are
constructed together then the means ought to be appropriate for achieving the goal.
However, people often understand what goal must be achieved but they cannot suggest
appropriate means to achieve the goal. However, it is necessary to note that the joint
