Geography Reference
In-Depth Information
incomes through taxes on wealth or possessions, or welfare provision of
schooling, medical aid and public transport, to ensure access to services for all at
modest cost. Policy is thus towards improving consumption for the poorest,
rather than worrying about production. Some policies within this framework came
to have the tag “demand stimulation”, following the ideas of John Maynard
Keynes, since increasing the consumption of a broad sweep of the population
would in turn increase production levels. Concern for welfare links neatly to
demand stimulation policies. But regional policies have also been employed, as
for example in most West European countries over the 1960s and 1970s,
followed in the late 1980s and 1990s by a more forceful EC policy set for the
regions. EC policies have also identified some other regional problems beyond
those of non-convergence between the regions, such as the special set of problems
for old industrial regions which need to convert to new industries.
It must be acknowledged, however, that some versions of left-wing theory do
not admit of any easy regional policy set. World systems theory sees the
penetration of international capital into all corners of the modern world, and any
country or region wishing to improve its own lot must break out of the system, a
difficult thing in itself requiring strong barriers to trade, and of dubious results
given the experience of those countries, like Tanzania and Cuba, that have tried
to isolate themselves from outside (Western) influence in recent decades. For
regions to accomplish an even partial closure, as suggested specifically for
Development from Below, seems an even more daunting and perilous task.
On the right, the implication of the analysis of gradual balancing through the
influence of the market does allow a lower level of regional policy and planning.
However, two kinds of policy are allowable within this analysis. First, a policy
set that improves infrastructure, and reduces the costs of distance and separation,
is in line with an analysis that recognizes real costs and transport barriers to
overcome. Thus roads and communications improvement, perhaps with growth
poles to spread development, is a part of such policy. Secondly, policies to
overcome specific problems through changing circumstances are relevant. Thus,
the policies of the EC for old industrial areas in transition, for the reform of
farming areas dominated by small farms, or for areas with speciflc
environmental problems, are relevant.
Resources and development
Both left- and right-wing views do have in common their focus on the mobile
factors of production, labour and capital. Another vein of development thinking
with special relevance to the study of regions has been the ideas about
development based on local resources. These ideas were given a more formal
grounding, as “staple theory”, in the work of some economic historians,
notably Innis (1930) and North (1961), concerning the “export base” of nations
and regions. The idea or theory was that a region, especially a newly settled
region, would develop and become prosperous as and when it discovered and
