Geography Reference
In-Depth Information
numerous aspects on which geographers have much to offer. For one thing, they
are able, perhaps more than economists or ecologists or sociologists, to consider
a large set of aims for development, including social and environmental aims
alongside the economic ones. On the question of state involvement, geographers
have a large range of examples from different countries to demonstrate the role of
state versus individuals and other institutions. Finally, there remain important
spatial aspects to development, even though the diffusionist model may be
shown to be untenable or irrelevant to many specific cases.
The nature of development
In the 1940s and 1950s development was identified as a purely economic
process. In fact, the term consistently used was “economic development”,
leaving aside any discussion of social, personal and other aspects. In the
literature on the subject, most writings came from applied economists whose
concern was for the betterment of production systems in the countries devastated
by the Second World War, and thereafter in the world's poor countries, then
identified often as the “developing countries” (indicating that they were moving
forwards), the “underdeveloped countries” (with the idea of perhaps a more
permanent state of affairs), or increasingly commonly, as the “Third World”,
referring to a political status outside the great power struggle between East and
West, capitalism and communism, and identified by poverty.
In the late 1960s, development as a concept came increasingly to mean
socioeconomic development, which meant that the old measure, gross national
product (GNP) per capita, was inadequate to represent it. A complex of measures
showing levels of education (more frequently of educational provision, which
subtly alters the idea), medical aid, housing, and other goods and services which
entered loosely into the concept of welfare, came into use. Since at that time, the
height of the “welfare state”, many of these elements were provided publicly in
advanced countries, welfare measures inevitably emphasized the higher status of
these countries, and at the same time made the case for more state involvement in
development, to provide more welfare.
What might be termed a third phase of thinking in the 1980s has come with
the further spread of the development concept, to include aspects of the
environment such as freedom from pollution, whether atmospheric, noise, water,
or visual landscape pollution. Access to countryside and the ability to enjoy a
healthy lifestyle have been included in measures of quality of life, which also
includes the older economic and social elements such as income levels, and
welfare provision such as schooling and medical aid.
Many of these quality-of-life elements are of low importance to people in poor
countries. First needs, or basic needs as they are termed in the literature, are
for shelter, food and clothing. Beyond these, once they are satisfied, are the
welfare elements; and beyond these again are the aspects of desirable
environment, unpolluted air, or community spirit (Maslow 1954). What is
