Environmental Engineering Reference
In-Depth Information
polycentricity developed at the city-regional level - and, more locally, urban areas master-
planned to vastly improve their urban design quality and attractiveness for living and working,
and use of walking and cycling. This includes major public transport corridors and interchanges
in the suburbs, and could also be carried out at the city regional level, hence London is planned
as the centre of a much larger urban region (see earlier
Figure 3.28
) (Hickman et al., 2013).
There is, of course linkage to the transport system, with complementary heavy investment in
public transport and walking and cycling facilities. Extensive application of this package
would potentially have a major impact, but largely over the medium term, as decisions on the
location of new housing and other development takes place gradually over time. More immediate
impacts are seen in major development areas - known as the 'Opportunity Areas' and
'Intensification Areas' in London (Greater London Authority, 2009).
PP7 ICT:
This package explores the potential for CO2 reduction through the application of
ICT, either in or on travel. The former includes measures to increase operating efficiency and
vehicle occupancies, and the latter measures that reduce travel by providing an electronic
alternative to physical travel. The current application of these types of measures are at very
low/formative levels of 'intensity' and the levels of transport CO2 reduction are limited under
current applicative patterns. Travel tends to adapt, with different types of activity taking place,
including more travel in many places, rather than a simple substitution of physical travel for
electronic interaction (Mokhtarian, 1988). Hence the rebound effects tend to be large here.
There is much more potential in future years as the 'network society' is developed and becomes
established (Castells, 2000; Hall and Pain, 2006); substitution in travel may even be realised.
The current levels of CO2 reduction from this package are, however, limited. This scenario
assumes a medium intensity application of ICT and the impacts remain minimal in terms of
transport CO2 reduction.
PP8 smarter choice behavioural measures:
This option includes a variety of measures targeted
at achieving behavioural change. In the UK they have become known as 'smarter choices',
after an influential early study on the topic (Cairns et al., 2004). Elsewhere, in areas such as
North America, similar initiatives are known as traffic demand management or mobility
management measures (Litman, 2010). Included here are workplace, residential and school
travel plans, car sharing and leasing, car clubs, travel awareness and personalised travel
planning programmes, information and marketing. There is some overlap in definition with
previous packages, such as ICT, and even urban planning is mentioned in some of the work.
These types of measures provide an important support to other packages, and they also
have an important impact on reducing CO2 emissions in their own right. In implementation
terms there is a developing programme - the DfT Sustainable Travel Demonstration Towns
programme has implemented smarter choice measures in Darlington, Peterborough and
Worcester. The evidence has suggested that public transport trips have increased by 13-22
per cent, walking trips by 17-29 per cent and cycling trips by 25-79 per cent. Car trips have
reduced by 11-13 per cent (Department for Transport, 2007). More recent evidence suggests
similar levels of change - bus trips have increased by 10-22 per cent, walking trips by 10-13
per cent and cycling trips by 26-30 per cent. Car driver trips have reduced by 9 per cent and
distance by 5-7 per cent (Sloman et al., 2010). TfL is similarly implementing smarter choice
measures, funding a programme since 2002. £5 million is being spent in Sutton as part of
the Smarter Travel Sutton programme. The objective here is to reduce car mode share by
5 per cent (Transport for London, 2009).
Despite the often impressive results, smarter choice investment remains low, certainly
relative to infrastructure investment. The DfT and others appear sceptical about the effectiveness
