Environmental Engineering Reference
In-Depth Information
very different emissions to the UK. There are also important issues to be overcome in developing
electric vehicles that are attractive and deliverable to the mass market, in terms of body shape,
battery life and distance between charges. A low-intensity application of this policy package
is assumed for the car fleet, with higher levels of application for the freight and bus fleets.
PP3 pricing regimes:
Congestion charging or area-wide road pricing could potentially make
a substantial difference to CO2 emissions on a London-wide scale. Road pricing is
conventionally conceived as one or more of the following: link-based (tolling for a route or
lane, sometimes including occupancy considerations); network-based (a congestion or distance-
based charge for strategic routes or wider); and area-based (a cordon or area charge for an
urban area or wider). There are large problems with all of these in terms of effectiveness,
acceptability and ultimately implementability - hence the huge difficulties experienced in
delivery (Levinson, 2010; Santos, 2005).
The history of road pricing illustrates nicely that theoretically 'efficient' interventions are
not always politically achievable, and in the end it is often the politics that are more important
than the technical options. Effectiveness issues are often related to equity and there are concerns
that impacts on low-income drivers are regressive. Acceptability depends very much on the
perceived distribution of winners and losers to the proposed charge. The current London scheme
is a simple cordon-based congestion charge, covering a limited part of the central area. This
scenario assumes a high-level application of the congestion charge (emission-based charging
London-wide) and a medium application of parking charging (higher charges and a tighter
supply). This gives clear signals to consumers to switch to more efficient cars or to other
modes of transport. An improved focus on CO2 reduction means re-specifying the charge as
an emissions-based charge. The cost of travel is related to distance travelled and the emissions
of the vehicle. In-vehicle GPS works out the charge - smaller, more fuel-efficient vehicles
pay less per km than the large and heavier cars. This type of re-specification may also assist
in implementation, articulating the scheme as a response to wider societal problems (CO2
emissions) and even include hypothecation, where the funds being raised are then used for
investment in other parts of the transport system. The problem here might be in scheme
complexity. One of the advantages of the current congestion charge scheme is its simplicity
in operation.
PP4 public transport:
Public transport investment is critical in allowing consumers to choose
carbon efficient means of travel. This scenario assumes a high-intensity investment in public
transport (beyond even the T2025 Scenario 4 Full Programme) and a medium level of fare
reduction. The scenario therefore includes all of the major Underground, National Rail,
Docklands Light Railway and bus and transit network developments and frequency upgrades
currently being developed, plus some potential additional proposals as discussed below.
Crossrail, the east-west rail link across London, will add 10 per cent to the overall capacity
of the public transport network and an additional 5.8 million passenger kilometres to peak
capacity. The full Rail 2025 proposals will increase capacity on the rail network by 35-40
per cent. The public-private partnership (PPP) package on the Underground network (LU)
will deliver an average capacity enhancement of 25 per cent across the LU (Transport for
London, 2006). The additional schemes to T2025 Scenario 4 include light rapid and bus transit
schemes in the suburbs, complemented by a revised urban planning approach (PP6). Transport
planning in London has conventionally been focused on improving the radial links into the
centre; there is still some way to go in improving options in outer London, which remains
relatively car dependent.
