Geography Reference
In-Depth Information
Resources entered into force. The origins of this development lie in the 1970s and a growing
fear that krill and fish were next to be intensely exploited in the Southern Ocean, following
seals and whales. Krill exploitation, for example, was initiated by the Soviet Union in the
early 1960s. By 1981/2, over 50,000 tons were captured, with the Soviet Union dominating
the krill market. At the height of this commercial over-fishing in the 1970s and 1980s, krill
was being widely considered as a potential source of food for the global South. Given its
central role in the Southern Oceanic food chain, there was understandable concern for the
deleterious consequences facing other living creatures.
The intent of the convention was to introduce conservation measures, based on scientific
research, designed to ensure the long-term sustainability of the Antarctic marine ecosystem.
Using the Antarctic Convergence as its area of application, and an ecosystem approach,
members adopted a series of measures including species prohibitions, minimum net sizes,
and, most significantly, total allowable catches (TACs). The TAC sets the maximum level of
exploitation and varies depending on species and geographical area (a series of managerial
regions are defined, such as South Georgia being sub-region 48.3) around the polar
continent. In terms of maintaining credibility, a scientific committee advises the Convention
for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR) policy-making
commission.
Additionally, under the terms of the so-called bi-focal approach, claimant states such as
Britain, France, Australia, and South Africa are able to enact additional measures designed
to protect their sovereign rights in and around sub-Antarctic islands. This was an important
development because the move to adopt the Antarctic Convergence as the zone of
application meant that the waters around the sub-Antarctic islands were embraced by
CCAMLR conservation measures. Claimants such as the UK interpret the bi-focal approach
as confirming their coastal state jurisdiction over island and polar continental territories,
while non-claimants tend to understand this approach as merely referring to islands within
the Convention area but north of 60?S. One of the principal challenges confronting the
management of Southern Ocean fisheries is illegal, unregulated, and unreported fishing
(IUU). Illegal fishing refers to fishing by CCAMLR parties which are in breach of
CCAMLR conservation measures, or vessels fishing in an exclusive economic zone of a
coastal state without permission. Unreported fishing refers to fishing not reported to
CCAMLR or another competent body. Unregulated fishing highlights the problem of third
parties, not members of CCAMLR, fishing in high seas.
These different forms of fishing came to the fore in the 1990s when the exploitation of
Patagonian Toothfish triggered public and scientific scrutiny. This revealed the difficulties
facing regulators and conservationists trying to restrict a trade worth millions, and touching
