Environmental Engineering Reference
In-Depth Information
horst, Kimmerer). It is not surprising, then, that power, defined as the measure of an
entity's ability to realize its goals (i.e., “power to”) as well as the ability to control the
behavior of other entities (i.e., “power over”), reveals itself in the chapters of this topic
and, indeed, within the practice of ecological restoration, generally. Surprisingly,
however, discussions about ecological restoration practices and projects rarely speak
directly to the issues about power relations (although see Light 2007). It is often the
elephant in the room, looming large but seldom acknowledged. Indeed, to many
restorationists, power is a concept germane only to the “social realm,” not to the world
of “objective” science and its technical applications that are thought to lie at the heart
of ecological restoration. Yet any act of intervention in one's social or ecological envi-
ronment is an exercise of power, and any act that includes or affects multiple people,
such as a restoration project, implies social power relations. Indeed, an intimate un-
derstanding of, and respect for, how power and power relationships work is a signifi-
cant part of being a successful ecological restorationist.
Power Structures
Humans have always lived within formalized social structures with recognizable
power relationships—families, clans, tribes, kingdoms, corporations, nation-states,
multination organizations—and within less formalized social structures of networks
and webs. Naturally, restorationists and restoration projects operate within both of
these power structures, and we suggest that understanding these structures and how
they affect the flow of matter, energy, and information (Stepp et al. 2003) is crucial to
understanding the context of many restoration efforts. This conceptualization is nec-
essary if we want to have a full perspective of ecosystems in which humans play an in-
tegral part. The two social organizational structures we examine here are heterarchy
and hierarchy.
A heterarchy is variously defined as “a partially ordered level structure implicating
a rapid, interactional capacity” (Kontopoulos 1993) and as “biophysical and cultural
systems in which the elements have the potential of being unranked relative to other
elements or ranked in a number of ways, depending on systematic requirements”
(Crumley 1979). Schematically, heterarchies resemble networks or webs with nodes.
Heterarchical arrangements have existed since the earliest humans and are still in use
today (Crumley 1987; Stephenson 2009). In this sort of structure, power is inclusive
and information flows more or less openly. Indeed, heterarchies recognize and em-
brace the power of information. There are leaders within heterarchies, but their
power is based on their wealth of information and ability to transmit it rather than any
given authority.
Hierarchies are common today because there is an increasing need to maintain
complex human ecosystems through the control of matter, energy, and information.
Hierarchies are structured around strong, “vertical” power relations that allow a rela-
tive few at the upper echelons to control the decision-making process. Examples of hi-
erarchical structures include military, corporate, and government organizations. The
hierarchical structure is characterized by a clear chain of command, well-defined
