Environmental Engineering Reference
In-Depth Information
meaningful ways into their daily curricula. Any RBE program should provide teach-
ers with curricular guidance and support that helps invigorate these subject areas.
Doing so will help teachers infuse new pedagogical techniques grounded in the
context of ecological restoration and environmental inquiry into the teaching of sci-
ence, math, language arts, and other core subject areas. Teachers gain experience us-
ing inquiry-based methods of teaching and learning science, receive activities aligned
with state standards, and learn new strategies for student assessment. The NAAEE's
Guidelines for the Preparation and Professional Development of Environmental Edu-
cators
offer support and recommendations for teacher education and curricular inte-
gration (see http://www.naaee.org/programs-and-initiatives/guidelines-for-excellence
/materials-guidelines/educator-preparation).
Incorporate Research and Evaluation
Researchers and educators have emphasized the need for additional systematic long-
term, larger-scale evaluation of schoolyard greening initiatives (Ozer 2007; Blair
2009). The need for thoughtful evaluation is also present for RBE projects. The EE
field has a strong interest in evaluation of program effectiveness, which has led to cre-
ation of higher-education evaluation courses, online evaluation tools and resources
(e.g., http://meera.snre.umich.edu/), and research and print materials to enhance the
practitioners' capacity to gauge their programmatic and organizational impacts (e.g.,
Jacobson et al. 2006; Powell, Stern, and Ardoin 2006; Ernst, Monroe, and Simmons
2009). Given that ecological restoration is a relatively young field, there is also vast re-
search potential for RBE initiatives to inform our practice. As mentioned previously,
there is limited research regarding the educational efficacy of RBE approaches. Like-
wise, there is potential of RBE to affect ecosystem services beyond learning outcomes,
which offer additional lines of inquiry.
There are various reasons why evaluation is a critical component to any RBE ini-
tiative. Depending on the approach taken, evaluation processes can provide greater
understanding, reinforce an effective program approach, provide for organizational
development, support empowerment and a sense of ownership among participants
(Patton 2008), help administrators make decisions about programs and personnel
(Wentling and Lawson 1975), and offer information to stakeholders and other inter-
ested audiences (Guba and Lincoln 1983).
Understanding formative and summative evaluation approaches provides another
perspective as to why evaluations are conducted. Summative evaluation identifies
and elaborates on program outcomes and is typically viewed as an “end-product” ap-
proach to prove what a program has achieved upon conclusion. In contrast, formative
evaluation implies that the primary purpose of designing and using evaluation is to
improve an instructional program, particularly by providing feedback to planning staff
involved. It focuses on the process rather than just the product (Baker 1974; Shadish,
Cook, and Leviton 1991). There is often a need and appropriate time for both sum-
mative and formative evaluation, and neither approach is mutually exclusive. Ideally,
program planners, evaluators, and other various stakeholders view evaluation as an
