Environmental Engineering Reference
In-Depth Information
breeds of livestock (sheep and cattle) suited to rough, wet conditions. Restoration was
used rather than intervention with habitat creation—a typical approach to such sites
in England. Existing site drainage was reduced to increase wetness, and site recovery
was monitored (Handley and Rotherham 2000; Rotherham et al. 2000).
Woodland Management: Coppice and Fuelwood
Traditional British woodland management varied from production, harvesting, and
use of small wood for domestic fuel consumption to much more intensive industrial
coppice wood production. The former occurred for centuries from the earliest periods
of human settlement in the region several thousand years ago; the latter predominated
from late medieval and early industrial periods with massive landscape impacts. The
two demands on wood supply coexisted for several hundred years. Perlin (1989) de-
scribed interactions between industrial and domestic demands for fuelwood, char-
coal, and coal and their effects on forestry and land use. This intensified with the In-
dustrial Revolution, and as industry and the swelling population of city dwellers
increasingly demanded coppiced wood and coal to supply energy, rural populations
turned to the main fuels of the common people—peat, turf, and furze (gorse)—sup-
plemented by small wood and heather. The nature and intensity of exploitation af-
fected many British landscapes. Coppice and pollard materials were used for fuel and
for leaf fodder, while hedgerow trees were also utilized and are still “worked” in parts
of Europe. Some examples of these activities are well documented (mostly where
commercial exploitation and marketing were involved), although much more went
undocumented and were simply the customs and practices of a largely illiterate, rural
population (Perlin 1989; Fowler 2002; Warde 2007).
We assessed three woodlands (Ecclesall Woods, Gleadless Valley Woods, and
Owler Carr Wood) that were restored using traditional coppice work and creation of
conservation glades. These are ancient woods (known as “wooded” since before
1600), managed by local traditional methods for centuries. By the late 1900s, these
woodlands were abandoned or replanted in part as “high forest,” and later used as
recreational (i.e., amenity) woods after their commercial value decreased. Because of
this long history of human exploitation, and associated diverse impacts on landscape
and site ecology, there was potential for tension between stakeholders in conservation
efforts. Woodlands mix relict ecology and cultural landscapes of former management,
so balancing restoration and recovery to conserve different aspects is problematic.
Some wooded landscapes present palimpsests over three thousand years, so deciding
which period to conserve or enhance raises issues. Limited understanding of interac-
tions between wooded sites and other landscapes, and of the importance of “antiq-
uity” in woodland conservation, causes problems. These issues are ongoing as ecolog-
ically driven restoration blends into delivery of amenity and recreational access, with
little understanding of ecological processes or conservation commitments.
Another study site at Westwood was a restored former opencast coal mine that in-
cluded relict ancient grassland and woodland that were allowed to “seed” into the re-
constructed landscape. This project was remarkably successful with few conflicts of
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