Environmental Engineering Reference
In-Depth Information
tion, in which local communities are given management responsibility, authority and
recognition, also improves success through the development of clear ownership and
tenure security. Farber et al. (2002) reviewed the case studies of environmental and
government administration in Germany and suggested some necessary (although not
sufficient) conditions that aid collective actions as citizens: (1) a functioning public
with control over their government, that is, a public who forces all political actors to
be advocates of justice and public interests; (2) individuals and groups who persist-
ently work toward sustainable development; (3) a decentralized decision-making
structure; and (4) an ethos of justice and the public interest. These studies showed
that the success of collective action is possible when the institutional and organiza-
tional settings are set up in a way that provides benefits to participants, guarantees
their rights, and facilitates responses to changing conditions (see chaps. 5, 6, 11, this
volume, for discussion of these ideas).
Social relationships that enable learning and adaptation can be viewed as a type of
asset (social capital) that includes associational activities, social relations, trust, and
norms of reciprocity (Rudd 2000). Although social capital can be viewed as a by-
product of voluntary or informal associations (i.e., through a heterarchy) (Crumley
1995), institutions and organizational structures can promote the development of
trust and cooperation by increasing access to information and resources and by coor-
dinating collective actions. As the concept of natural capital operationalizes the pur-
suit of sustainability, the concept of social capital can help us operationalize collec-
tive actions. One of the key structural variables of collective action is the existence of
a socially constructed shared vision (Rudd 2000; also see chaps. 6, 16, this volume). In
the absence of an omnipotent dictator, a shared vision must be constructed collabora-
tively, which is a slow process. As in ecological systems, social systems are sustained by
conservative and slow-moving variables dynamically interacting with fast-moving fac-
tors. For sustainable management of both systems, we should focus our attention on
the changes in slow variables while actively experimenting with fast ones (Holling,
Gunderson, and Peterson 2002). In other words, iterative and aggressive social learn-
ing enabled by the shared vision is necessary for adaptive management (Lessard
1998).
On the other hand, when management focus is on increasing efficiency, social-
economic systems can also accumulate slow-moving factors (e.g., centralization of
decision-making power) and experience increased rigidity (e.g., conservatism and bu-
reaucracy). Within a concentrated power structure, an erroneous course of actions
can persist even after the negative consequences are realized and avoidable (Cher-
mack 2004). Under these regimes, management tends to focus on maintaining con-
stancy of the power structure while ignoring any signals to the contrary, rather than
promoting adaptability in the face of unpredictable external changes. As in ecological
systems, human organizations that are preoccupied with short-term gain and seek a se-
ries of easy “quick-fix” solutions tend to fail, while those that can learn and adapt to
the external changes survive and proliferate in the long term (Makridakis 1991). In
the business world, the leadership and integrity of a visionary CEO may guide a firm
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