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human cell fractions, and recombinant human enzymes, essential information will, in
the future, be derived to a greater extent directly from human studies. At the same
time, studies utilizing surrogate animals will also be revolutionized by such new tech-
niques of molecular biology as the use of knockout and transgenic, including “human-
ized”, mice (e.g.,
Gonzalez, 2003
), and the knowledge of the genomes of many species.
These same techniques through the study of genetic polymorphisms will enable us
to identify human populations at increased risk and enable comparative studies to be
carried out at the level of specific isoforms of the XMEs involved. Thus the study of
pesticide metabolism continues to evolve into a new, more molecular, era that will be
fascinating as well as useful.
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