Graphics Reference
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new aesthetic appreciation of 3-D depth informa-
tion, motion, and image transformation, so users
benefit cognitively from their experiences and
reach a new level of visual sophistication. Environ-
mental experience grows with the development of
the frame of reference and with an understanding of
the Euclidian relationships that are not projective
or topological. The use of an active movement, a
film or TV projections, and an object manipulation
are helpful for spatial development. Several kinds
of computer graphics-based game software have
been produced to improve spatial skills. Children as
young as 3 can use both graphic editing programs
and games, and children about 7 can create and
transform representations of 3-D objects (Piestrup,
1982). Bolter (1987) stressed spatial character of
writing and proposed that computer technology
may foster change in the structure and symbolic
character of writing.
Gaming may thus influence cognitive develop-
ment and neural organization. The use of com-
puters may influence cognitive development and
neural organization but there are varied opinions
about these effects. Some research data show that
communication media (e.g. video games, digital
television, two-dimensional computer graphics,
and three-dimensional representations of geo-
metric data) influence the viewer's perception,
comprehension, and retention of computerized
images. Such key factors as the shape, direction,
and motion may act on viewer's comprehension
and retention of computerized images, so the
users may thus benefit cognitively from these
experiences and reach a new level of visual so-
phistication. Another data indicate that the ability
to recreate a complex figure from memory does
not rise with the declared knowledge of software
(Knipp, 2003). It may be caused by the fact that
tedious tactile/kinesthetic hand skills and visual
exercises executed by the designer's hand might
be eliminated by the use of computers, but still
they may be necessary for improving perceptual
development. Traditional schooling had been
mostly focused on developing memory skills. At
present, a necessity of coping with large amount
of information creates a need to expand abilities
of higher order thinking, visualization, and un-
derstanding of abstract concepts.
Spatial Abilities and Imagination
Visual imagination helps meet challenges that
require good spatial skills, that means, competency
in the area of spatial visualization and spatial
orientation. It can be improved with practice,
but a need for developing spatial skills has long
been overlooked by public education. According
to the U.S. Employment Service, spatial ability
is a strong predictor variable for the achievement
in sciences and in many careers, so, several years
ago, the U.S. Employment Service published
a list of 84 occupations where spatial ability is
important for the achievement in a career. It is
possible to improve one's spatial abilities, espe-
cially if somebody is at the formal operational
level. Practicing freehand drawing may improve
spatial skills. However, there is unidirectional
relationship between freehand drawing ability and
spatial skills: somebody's high spatial visualiza-
tion and orientation do not insure drawing ability
(Arnheim, 1974) and does not lower the “drawing
barrier” between a one's mental representation
and what is actually drawn. Active learning and
control over decisions in a learning environment
improve spatial abilities. Improvement comes
fast and happens just by doing mental exercises.
A Mental Exercise
You may now want to make a mental exercise with
a cube, using your visual mind's eye. Try to solve
this problem without sketching the cube, unless
you really need to do so. Let's imagine a cube
which is painted blue on the surface and it is red
inside. It can be a big or a not-so-big cube, and
the choice of the shade of blue is up to you. Now,
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