Graphics Reference
In-Depth Information
The Development of
Spatial Cognition
Field dependence and independence has been
investigated intensively since the seventies.
Witkin included this concept into his theory on
psychological differentiation that pertained to
the ways people might differ in psychological
and neurophysiologic behavior, in areas such as
perceptual, intellectual, personality, and social
domains. Field independent individuals are
more likely to use internal referents as primary
guides in information processing, and field
dependent people use more external referents.
For example, field independent people have an
internalized frame of reference as a guide to self-
definition, and use themselves as a reference.
Field dependent individuals require externally
defined goals and reinforcement. They tend to
excel in interpersonal and social competencies
as compared to the field independent people.
Field dependence-independence has been ex-
amined as one of the constructs of personal
epistemology, the extent and nature of personal
knowledge. Wilkinson & Schwartz (1991) postu-
lated a general belief system of external rigidity
versus internal flexibility; hence the personal
epistemology of relativism was developed that
stressed the subjective truth and values, relative
to a particular frame of reference. The field
dependence-independence has not been asso-
ciated with perceptual and cognitive systems.
The Group Embedded Figures Test (Witkin,
Dyk, Faterson, Goodenough, & Karp, 1974)
was used to identify field independent students
(Moore, 1985). Field independent persons
scored higher on the visual location task that
tested the subjects' ability to select a criterion
picture from a group of three similar pictures
after viewing three quadrants of the criterion
pictures in random order. To avoid developing
science misconceptions, one must consider
different strategies of information processing,
and the extent to which a person's perception
of information is influenced by the context in
which it appears.
Spatial cognition is a developmental process.
Piaget and Inhelder (1971) carried out a study
of the development of spatial cognition and de-
scribed mental manipulations: accommodation
which means transformations induced in one's
existing schemata, and assimilation which means
transformation of the new object to correspond
with existing schemata. Their nature determines
what is actually perceived. When we recognize
something, we compare what we see with our
memory representation. First, we build (encode)
the structural schemata, recognize and process
visual patterns of what we see in both visual and
verbal memory, and make comparisons to the
recognized canonical objects (those with already
known top/bottom, front/back, and left/right dif-
ferences).
Spatial cognition depends on the child's cog-
nitive level - sensorimotor, intuitive, concrete
operational, and formal operational problem solv-
ing. At first, a child's view of the world (frame of
reference) is egocentric, with no coordination of
vision and grasp, and no relationships related to
other figures (cannot imagine anything that is not
visible because it is covered). Then, a child acquires
a fixed system and knows about objects in space
even when hidden. Children use iconic or picture
representation at the preoperational level, and they
develop the use of abstract symbols during the
operational stage. Finally the coordinated system
is developed. An adult can understand Euclidian
geometry, be capable of using formal cognitive
operations, and iconic modes of representation.
Thus, there are several areas of grow which
have been taken into account in this description:
•
The Frame of Reference:
Which is first
egocentric, then it shifts from egocentric to
fixed, then the coordinated system is devel-
oped, depending on the child's cognitive
level.
