Graphics Reference
In-Depth Information
the same place it was placed on their own body.
Therefore, anatomically detailed dolls should not
be used in forensic situations in cases of suspected
abuse. In educational practice, using wooden
blocks designed to represent numerical quantity,
as “manipulatives”, could be counterproductive
in teaching subtraction. Similarly, old-fashion
alphabet topics may serve better than manipulative
topics designed to interact with the topic (flaps,
levers to animate images, etc.).
The concept of the visual developmental
stages has been applied to describe the process
of evolving skills and capacities in the visual
domain (Gardner, 1978, 1983). Analogies have
been drawn between mental development and the
visual development stages of representation. The
levels of student visual and cognitive develop-
ment may be important in their problem solving
and types of expression and perception. Several
authors provided their descriptions of the visual
development stages. Sir Ciril Burt (1922/2009)
defined the stages as: Scribble (2-5 years), Line
(4 years), Descriptive Symbolism (5-6 years),
Descriptive Realism (7-8 years), Visual Realism
(9-10 years), Repression (11-14 years), Artistic
Revival (early adolescence). Helga Eng (1931)
defined three stages up to eight years - scribbling,
transition, and formalized drawing. Historically,
the most prevailing and widely used description
of the visual development stages was developed
by Victor Lowenfeld (1947), who defined the
stages as: scribbling (2-4 years), pre-schematic
(4-7 years), schematic (7-9 years), dawning re-
alism (9-11 years), pseudo-naturalistic (11-13
years), and the period of decision (adolescence).
Lowenfeld and Brittain (1987) further reworked
this model. Using the concept of schema, the fun-
damental basis of the Piagetian psychology, the
authors described the stages of visual development
as: scribbling - manipulation stage (up to 3 - 4
years); generalization (early symbolic, presche-
matic stage, 3-4 up to 6 years); characterization
(symbolic, schematic stage, 6-7 up to 9 years);
and visualization stage (9-12 years).
Most studies on visual development were
performed in the context of the child's cognitive
development. However, it must be realized that
students functioning at varied levels of visual and
formal operation stages can be also found at the
college level (Arlin, 1974). Using Arlin's test of
formal reasoning, Boyd (1989) found that only
54 percent of secondary students functioned at
the formal operation stage. For this reason Boyd
stressed the need for introducing modified methods
in teaching chemistry for students functioning at
the concrete stage of development. In respect to
visual development, Wohlwill (1988) described
the problems and frustrations faced by students
approaching the visualization level. The meaning
of student art in the course of visual development
of young and adult students can be discussed from
at least four different points of view.
• The psychoanalytic approach has some
background in clinical psychology. The
production of art objects is used as a pro-
jective technique (through observation of
the drawings, especially those of human
figures). The main concern is to develop a
mentally healthy person. Art is a means of
discovering the internal conflicts and dis-
turbing experiences. Art activities for men-
tally ill persons are sometimes considered
therapeutic.
• In behavioral psychology, student's envi-
ronment is responsible for the development
of the student. Art activities are considered
reinforcing and shaping behavior. Art both
changes and reflects thinking processes.
For behaviorists, art becomes an indication
of a subject's understanding of the task at
hand.
• With the developmental approach, art is
examined to see how the children mea-
sure up to what is expected of them at
any particular age. The children cannot
change until they are ready; the develop-
mental level predetermines the change and
