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also other abilities such as motivational factors
and temperament. Donald Hoffman (2000, p. 202)
declared, “Visual intelligence occupies almost half
of your brain's cortex. Normally it is intimately
connected to your emotional intelligence and your
rational intelligence. It constructs the elaborate
visual realities in which you live and move and
interact.”
Howard Gardner (1984) described distinct
forms of intelligence - abilities to solve problems
or design fashion products that are valued in at least
one cultural setting or community. Gardner (1994,
1997) also investigated with cognitive approach
the anatomy of creativity and discussed several
kinds of creative mastery: the first is producing
permanent works in a genre (like Mozart, Picasso,
Virginia Woolf). The second way is in executing
stylized performances (like Mozart, Martha Gra-
ham, Sarah Bernhardt). The third form of creation
entails solving recognized problems (like James
Watson and Francis Crick who solved the structure
of DNA, mathematicians like Andrew Wiles who
executed Fermat's last proof, and inventors like
Wright Brothers who devised a flying machine).
A fourth form of creation features formulating
a general framework or theory (such as Freud,
Darwin, or Albert Einstein). A final form of cre-
ation returns to the realm of performances, but
this time performances of high stake, where an
individual's ability to perform creatively under
stress could spell the difference between life and
death, escape and injury (Mahatma Gandhi, also,
performances for career-making prizes in athlet-
ics or the arts). However, general expectation of
conformity often results in cautious attitudes to
the spirit of creativity and to the value of creative
skills. Some pose that any individual who works
diligently for a sufficient period of time should
be able to become an expert and only practice
separates the ordinary from the extraordinary. Yet,
according to Garner, achieving expertise is not the
same as achieving extraordinariness and most of
individuals do not become extraordinary. Instruc-
tion is not designed that way, and most individuals
lack the propensity to rebel, to become Makers of
domains. Gardner found some regularity in the
lives of Makers - those highly creative individuals
who have invented or decisively altered domains:
• Born in a community close to intellectual
life.
• Talented in a range of areas; they are youth
at promise, contrary to youth at risk.
• Grown in a bourgeois ethic of regular, dis-
ciplined work.
• Given love and support from parents.
•
Such individuals take of for a center of
cultural life and make a selection of a do-
main. They need an alter ego to keep them
on course when they explore ideas and
concepts that make little sense to others.
•
They arrive to new formulation that may
transform the domain in which they work.
•
They are able to make multiple representa-
tions of a problem think in a number of
ways to illuminate it
•
In their work, there may be further devel-
opments or dramatic shifts to new areas.
According to Abraham Maslow (1968/1998),
who once offered an opinion, “It is as if Freud
supplied us the sick half of psychology and we
must now fill it out with the healthy half,” self-
actualizing people share several qualities including
(Maslow, 1943, 1968/1998, p. 89): truth (honesty,
completeness); goodness (benevolence, honesty);
beauty (simplicity, completion); wholeness (in-
tegration, synergy); dichotomy-transcendence
(acceptance, resolution); aliveness (spontaneity,
self-regulation); uniqueness (individuality, nov-
elty); perfection (nothing superfluous); necessity
(inevitability); completion (fulfillment); justice
(fairness, non partiality); order (lawfulness);
simplicity (bluntness); richness (complexity, intri-
cacy); effortlessness (ease; lack of strain); playful-
ness (fun, joy, amusement); and self-sufficiency
(autonomy, independence, self-determining).
