Ethics of Food Production and Consumption - The Oxford Topic of Food, Politics, and Society - page 241

that these different types of agriculture co-exist, and, perhaps, even can learn from each
other. Co-existence is typically a concept that originated from the pragmatist approach,
but can also have a function in the other ones. Co-existence does not try to overcome
the differences in values and appreciations by making one food system dominant but,
rather, looks for voluntary recognition of these differences. In the EU, co-existence is
the main strategy for living with genetically modified (GM) and non-GM crops; as long
as both areas are separated from each other, interference between the two is assumed to
be prevented; the same holds with respect to organic and nonorganic ways of farming
(Thies, this volume).
Animal welfare and animal integrity are concepts that play a pivotal role not only in
animal ethics but also in food ethics, since most animals nowadays are managed in ani-
mal husbandry systems. One can distinguish here among utilitarian, deontological, care
or virtue ethical and pragmatist positions (Palmer 2011). For the utilitarian positions,
like that of Singer (2006), the main question is: “Can they suffer?” Calculation of suffer-
ing of all sensitive animals gives the solution to what harms to prevent and what goods to
accept in this line of ethical reasoning. A deontologist—for example, like Regan (1983)—
considers every animal as an autonomous being that requires respect. For the care or
virtue theory, like that of Sandler (2007), virtues are important, which are character
traits that stimulate human and nonhuman flourishing. In the ethics of pragmatists, like
that of Norton (2005) or Korthals (2004), the various practices of human animal inter-
actions (like farming and zoos), have their own standards of excellence and ideals that
practioners uphold.
Case Studies in Food Ethical
Issues: Malnutrition and Eating Meat
Malnutrition
Hunger and malnutrition are among the most fundamental issues in food ethics and
a pressing concern for many citizens in the wealthy world. For reasons of space, only
micronutrient and not caloric malnutrition will be discussed here (Stein, this volume).
This is a severe problem because more than half the world's hungry people are hungry
not due to lack of energy (calories and proteins) but due to lack of essential minerals and
vitamins, resulting in severe diseases and malfunctioning. One example is that almost
one-third of the world's people do not get enough iodine from food and water. The result
is dwarfism, cretinism, and mental slowness. Some national and international govern-
mental bodies, NGOs, and companies feel responsibility for this issue, but the history of
preventing micronutrient deficiencies has no foreseeable end yet. International efforts
to reduce these deficiencies started in the 1970s. In 1992, the International Conference for
Nutrition declared: