Biofuels - The Oxford Topic of Food, Politics, and Society - page 191

1,000 kg of palm oil, for transesterification (a reversible reaction in which one ester is
converted into another as by interchange of ester groups with an alcohol in the presence
of a base). This results in a negative 8% net energy output for palm oil.
There are several negative environmental and social issues associated with oil palm
plantations. First, the removal of tropical rainforests to plant the oil palm results in an
increase in CO2 emissions (Thoenes 2007). Secondly, the removal of tropical rain forests
and the planting of oil palms reduce the biodiversity of ecosystems. Finally, using oil
palm for fuel reduces the availability of palm oil for human use and increases the price
of palm oil. Although palm oil is not important nutritionally, it is the oil used by many in
the developing world to cook their food (Thoenes 2007).
Algae for Oil Production
Some cultures of algae consist of 30% to 50% oil (Dimitrov 2007) which has sparked
interest in using algae to increase the US oil supply, based on the theoretical claims that
47,000 to 308,000 liters/hectare/year (5,000 to 33,000 gallons/acre) of oil could be pro-
duced using algae (Briggs 2004; Valcent Products Inc. 2007). Based on these theoretical
claims, the calculated cost per barrel would be $15 (Green Car 2006). The average com-
modity price for a barrel of crude oil in 2012 was $105 (World Bank 2013). If the above
estimated production and price of oil produced from algae were correct, US annual oil
needs could theoretically be met if 100% of all US land were in algal culture.
Despite all the algae-related research and claims dating back to 1970s, none of the pro-
jected algae and oil yields have been achieved (Dimitrov 2007). To the contrary, one cal-
culated estimate, based on all the included costs of using algae, put the cost at $800 per
barrel, not $15 per barrel. Still, estimates vary widely, in part because algae biodiesel has
largely failed to get beyond the laboratory or the pilot plant stage. Algae, like all plants,
require large quantities of nitrogen and water in addition to significant fossil energy
inputs for the production system (Goldman and Ryther 1977). The absolute maximum
visible light energy fixation rate for photosynthesis for any plant is 8%, whereas 1-3% is
common for crop plants, but only while they are growing, since a portion of the year in
the temperate zone nothing grows, and any photosynthetic efficiency has to take this
nonactive period into account (Moore et al. 1998).
Conclusion
Recent policy decisions have mandated increased production of biofuels in the
United States and worldwide. For instance, in the Energy Independence and Security
Act of 2007 (US Energy Information Agency 2008), President Bush set “a mandatory
Renewable Fuel Standard (RFS) requiring fuel producers to use at least 36 billion gallons