Agroecological Intensification of Smallholder Farming - The Oxford Topic of Food, Politics, and Society - page 104

capacity, there is diversity of opinion on how this may be best achieved. Much of the
increased productivity attained in Africa over recent decades has relied upon increasing
the land area utilized, but there are few remaining opportunities to expand agricultural
areas without conflict and excessive environmental damage (Young 1999; Balmford et al.
2012). Thus it is generally agreed that some sort of intensification is essential (Pretty et al.
2011). Increased production per unit area has historically been driven by technology
change, much of it dependent on cheap fossil fuel inputs. The concept of intensification
is often assumed to refer to the increased use of purchased inputs, such as improved
seed, fertilizer, and irrigation to produce higher crop yields. It is, however, possible to
intensify production based on an increased use of ecological knowledge and practices,
or on a combination of ecological practices and purchased inputs. The outputs can be
measured in terms of higher yields, but metrics can also include ecosystems services,
nutrition, and livelihoods. Contemporary development discourse reflects these alterna-
tives. In this chapter we examine what this means for smallholder farmers in developing
countries, and for the systems that support them.
Alternative Trajectories and
Strategies for Achieving Them
From the most simplistic point of view, three types of trajectories can be described for
agricultural systems: those in which performance is being degraded (those follow-
ing degenerative pathways), those in which performance is stable, and those in which
performance is sustainably improving (those on regenerative pathways). How “per-
formance” is defined is critical; that issue will be addressed below. The natural endow-
ments, history, pressures, and constraints differ across systems, so in reality an infinite
number of trajectories could be described. Research and development efforts aim to
identify practical opportunities to nudge trajectories in a way that improves the perfor-
mance of these systems.
Unfortunately, many of the world's farming systems are on degenerative trajecto-
ries, in which the basic agro-resources of soil, water, and genetic resources are being
eroded. The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment determined that 40 percent of farm-
land is being critically degraded (Millenium Ecosystem Assessment 2005). Even many
of the best-endowed African agroecosystems are under sufficient population pressure
that their productivity has been compromised or is likely to be negatively affected in
the near future (MacIntyre et al. 2009). Degradation of agricultural resources can be
the consequence of intensification: irrigation can lead to groundwater depletion and to
salinization; reduction in fallows can lead to reduced soil fertility; the overuse of chemi-
cal inputs can lead to pollution and to pest outbreaks; and tillage can lead to soil erosion.
Degradation can also result from neglect. When inputs are not provided and fallows are
shortened or eliminated, for example, soil fertility can be exhausted. When agriculture