Geography Reference
In-Depth Information
development should be based on local resources rather than economic
efficiency - giving rise to development from below, rural-based develop-
ment, and eco-development, something that would later become sus-
tainable development.
Accordingly, the 1970s and 1980s saw the appearance of a whole
series of social indicators of development, including those relating to
health, education and nutrition. The argument that development is
more than economic growth was advanced on a number of fronts. The
main issue is that even with growth and the provision of more goods
and services, it depends how these are distributed between different
members and groups of the society. This emerging view was reflected
in the derivation of the Human Development Index (HDI) as an overall
multidimensional measure of development (see Chapter 1.2). In this,
income is still included as a measure of standard of living, but as one of
three major variables: the other two measuring health (life expectancy)
and knowledge/education (literacy, educational enrolment).
Eventually, such social indicators were broadened to incorporate
measures of environmental quality, political and human rights and
gender equality. This has recently been fully explored by the Nobel
Laureate in economics, Amartya Sen (1999)
,
in
Development as
Freedom,
where he argues that
'Development consists of the removal of
various types of unfreedoms that leave people with little opportunity of
exercising their reasoned agency' (Sen, 1999: xii). In this view freedom
is defined in terms of certain human and civil rights that must be guar-
anteed for all. Above all, people must have the opportunity to be fit,
healthy and educated. For Sen (2000) development consists of the
removal of various types of unfreedoms that leave people little choice
and few real opportunities. Sen's emphasis is on the need for instru-
mental freedoms - those that will make a difference to peoples' lives.
The need for an understanding of the multidimensional nature of
development had in fact been clearly outlined by Goulet in his topic
The
Cruel Choice: a New Concept on the Theory of Development
(1971). In this
he recognized three components of development, these broadly equating
with the economic, followed by personal and wider societal freedoms:
23
•
Life sustenance
is concerned with the provision of basic needs.
No nation can be regarded as developed if it cannot provide its
people with housing, clothing, food and education. This is, of
course, closely related to the issue of distribution within society. It
is perfectly possible for a poor country to be growing fast, yet its
