Geography Reference
In-Depth Information
refers to the implicit assumptions, habits, the 'taken for granted' ideas
and ways of operating that underpin social networks - Bourdieu (1977)
argued that social capital needed to be understood within wider politi-
cal and cultural relations. As such, social networks come with a set of
cultural markers, or cultural capital, that can be exclusionary as well
as inclusionary - a factor that was often bypassed in development
projects. Although the power of social capital as a tool for poverty alle-
viation is now regarded as overstated, it has been a valuable tool in
focusing attention on the role played by social relationships and asso-
ciations in structuring people's everyday livelihoods. Furthermore, and
in the context of development, some have argued that there is a strong
synergy between social capital and civil society associations in local
development (Mohan and Stokke, 2000).
Civil Society, Collective Action and NGOs
While the state has often been seen as an impediment to participatory
development, it is argued that meaningful participation at the grass-
roots requires an alternative set of relationships, actors and agencies.
Civil society is an arena of collective social interactions that is situated
between the household, market and the state, and it encompasses a
diverse range of NGOs, groups, networks and associations (McIlwaine,
2007). Civil society organizations can be further differentiated accord-
ing to type, size, function, scale of operation and place. Central to the
notion of civil society is its relationship with the nation state and it is
often seen as a means of limiting the power of the state and challenging
its legitimacy. While civil society operates at a range of spatial scales,
McIlwaine argues that it is theoretically flawed to speak of a 'global
civil society' in the absence of a global state; instead she identifies a
transnational civil society that consists of a mix of overlapping groups
and actors that operate across national borders.
Though it is argued that a strong civil society encourages the citizen-
ship, democracy, cooperation, tolerance and accountability required to
foster development and social inclusion, two main theoretical view-
points have emerged. First, there is a liberal democratic approach that
views civil society as a beneficial force for good, a non-critical stance
that has been adopted by many development agencies. Civil society is
important to the neoliberal agenda as it fosters democracy and under-
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