Geography Reference
In-Depth Information
context: 'We are all capable, needy, dependent, vulnerable social
beings, though the ways in which we are varies [sic] both individually
and according to our place in the world'.
As these ideas imply, the universalism versus cultural relativism
debate is highly polarized and in many ways can hinder development.
This is most evident regarding interventions to address harmful cultural
practices affecting women in the global South, such as Female Genital
Mutilation/Cutting (FGM/C) which is practised mainly in north-east
Africa, in some areas in western Africa, southern parts of the Arabian
peninsula, and among some migrants from these areas to Europe, North
America and Australia (Almroth et al., 2001). From a cultural relativist
stance, FGM/C can be seen as a cultural tradition that is important to
particular ethnic and religious groups as a significant initiation rite in
girls' transition to womanhood. It may be viewed as necessary by men and
women within particular communities in securing a girl's marriage pros-
pects and those who refuse to undergo circumcision may be ostracized
(Almroth et al., 2001). FGM/C rights-based development interventions
that seek to eliminate this practice may be criticized for not understand-
ing the importance of this practice to local communities and for glossing
over significant differences in practices among the diverse ethnic groups
that adhere to FGM/C (Gruenbaum, 1996). FGM/C rights-based interven-
tions may also be criticized as being driven by Western donor concerns
that 'lack respect' for particular cultures and perpetuate colonial and
modernist discourses that construct culture and tradition as 'backward'.
On the other hand, a rights-based, usually biomedical, approach views
FGM/C as a harmful cultural practice which represents a violation of
girls' and women's human rights, especially those of bodily integrity and
sexuality, and can lead to psychological trauma, long-term physical
impairments and health concerns or even death (Parker, 1999).
These polarized perspectives raise the question of who defines 'cul-
ture' and 'tradition' and whose voices are heard. As discussed in
Chapter 4.4 in relation to sexuality, notions of 'culture' and 'tradition'
are often appropriated by powerful actors to impose their views on
societies. Post-colonial feminists have argued that unless rights-based
interventions on FGM/C and other harmful cultural practices affect-
ing women in the global South are led by women and men (and chil-
dren) from communities where these customs are practised - and are
connected to broader structural issues of education, health and pov-
erty reduction programmes - such interventions are in danger of
219
