Geography Reference
In-Depth Information
Research suggests that the 'generational bargain' is coming under
increasing pressure in many low- and middle-income countries due to
societal transformations associated with a range of global processes.
These include globalization, neoliberal economic restructuring, the
HIV epidemic - and the consequences of reduced public health spend-
ing, user fees and policies that emphasize home-based care (Ogden
et al., 2006) - rapid urbanization, high levels of transnational and
rural-urban migration, greater emphasis on education, changing
family structures and the individualization of kinship responsibili-
ties (Kabeer, 2000). Such changes affect the ability of younger gen-
erations to provide care and support for older people in a diverse
range of contexts.
In China, for example, the combination of a rapidly ageing popula-
tion, the change to a market economy that emphasizes reliance on
individual effort and the reduction of social welfare provision, the birth
control policy of one child per family, and high levels of migration
among working-age adults, is placing strains on traditional patterns of
care for older people within families and communities (Silverstein et al.,
2006). The majority of older people remain in rural regions, while
working-age adults migrate to urban areas and usually send remit-
tances to support their parents and children. Studies highlight the
growing gap in care provision for older people in poorly developed rural
areas and the need for governmental intervention, as longevity
increases alongside reduced family sizes due to the 'one-child policy'
(Joseph and Phillips, 1999; Woo et al., 2002). Silverstein et al. (2006),
however, suggest that traditional family structures are adapting to
these social changes. The research found that three-generation house-
holds and skipped-generation households (where older people and
grandchildren are supported by remittances from the working-age gen-
eration who have migrated to urban areas) are more beneficial to the
well-being of older people in rural Chinese society than single-generation
households.
In Eastern and Southern Africa, three decades of the HIV epidemic
have taken a considerable toll on the ability of families and communi-
ties to care for large numbers of people living with a chronic life-limiting
illness, orphaned children and youth, and older people whose adult
children have died (Evans, 2010). The loss of the parental 'middle gen-
eration' has led to the emergence of new household forms, such as 'skipped
generation households' and 'child- and youth-headed households'
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