Geoscience Reference
In-Depth Information
considered the business capital of Israel, attracts employees from the entire metro-
politan area and beyond. According to the 2008 Israel Census, there are 400,000
working places in the CBD, which constitute 40 % of the entire TAMA jobs
(Central Bureau of Statistics
2008
).
Two policy measures are analyzed in this paper. The first policy measure
considered is a reduction in parking supply in the CBD. Assuming fixed demand
(i.e., a constant total number of motor vehicle trips), a decrease in the parking
supply in the area will result in a dispersion of trips to traffic zones outside the CBD.
The second policy measure studied is an increase in parking fees. Since parking fees
vary across the CBD, increased fees will inadvertently affect parking search time.
This assumption is related to the fact that drivers will try to look for cheaper parking
places or even park far from their destination in order to save on costs (Shoup
1999
). Therefore, this policy measure will be evaluated in conjunction with the
decrease in parking availability.
The methodology applied in the paper is to use travel-demand elasticity values
from the original transportation models to calculate the expected decrease in car
trips in every traffic zone in the CBD area. Assuming differential parking fees, the
traffic-assignment model produces new traffic flows and travel times. Total travel
time and VKT are compared to the base case, in which parking policies are not
employed.
The paper is organized as follows: The next section presents a short review of the
literature on different policy measures and their effect on the environment. The
methodology used to analyze the impact of alternative parking-policy measures is
then presented. Subsequently we present the environmental effects of the two
parking policies. Finally the last section of the paper offers a discussion on the
main findings.
21.2
Literature Review
In spite of the positive effects that technological means of reducing emissions could
have on the environment, urban air quality continues to deteriorate in most metro-
politan areas. This phenomenon is primarily due to the continuous rise in VKT,
which is an outcome of urban sprawl and the increase in the rate of car ownership
(Shefer
1994
; Newman et al.
1988
; Lyons et al.
1990
,
2003
; Katz
1994
; Bernick and
Cervero
1997
; de Roo
1999
; Burton
2000
).
There are numerous policies that deal with urban sprawl and the consequent rise
in the number of motor vehicles and VKT. The objective of these various policies is
to create conditions for travelers to the CBD to reach their destinations with a
minimum use of private vehicles. Such conditions include improving access to
activities such as work, shopping, etc., by means of public transit, cycling, or
walking. These measures also generally impose stricter policy measures against
those who drive their private vehicles. Examples of such policy measures are
congestion toll and parking policies (Geurs and van Wee
2004
; Levine and Garb
2002
; Shoup
1999
).
