Environmental Engineering Reference
In-Depth Information
booster biocides that were the most used were diuron, Irgarol 1051, dichloflu-
anid, chlorothalonil and SeaNine 211. For this reason, research within ACE
was focused on these compounds. Whilst zinc pyrithione was also considered
to be of emerging importance, usage, then, was comparatively low. In add-
ition the compound is difficult to analyse. For these reasons, very little data
is available for this biocide.
3
Extent of Contamination
Concentrations of booster biocides in coastal environments are a function of
the inputs from vessels, dilution
/
flushing of the systems, and degradation of
the compounds.
The first reported contamination of coastal waters by booster biocides was
for Irgarol 1051 on the Cote d'Azur [8]. Substantial concentrations (up to
approximately 1700 ng L -1 ) were recorded in marinas of the region. Subse-
quent papers confirmed broad contamination in other areas of high boating
activity in Europe. More recently, booster biocide contamination has been
reported in waters from Japan, the United States, Singapore, Australia and
Bermuda. Several reviews have described and compared the extent of con-
tamination (e.g. [9-12]) (see also other chapters within this topic).
Critical to monitoring of the extent of contamination is the develop-
ment of suitably sensitive analytical techniques. This topic is dealt with
in detail in the chapter by Barcelo and Fernandez-Alba. Within ACE, sev-
eral highly sensitive chromatographic methods for the analysis of the se-
lected booster biocides and their metabolites in environmental waters and
sediments were developed. Methods were directed towards: Irgarol 1051,
its metabolite 2-methylthio-4-tert-butylamino-s-triazine; diuron and its by-
products dimethyl diuron and 1-(3,4-dichlorophenyl)urea; chlorothalonil;
vinclozolin; dichlofluanid; and SeaNine 211. Extractions employed on-line
and off-line solid-phase extraction (SPE) cartridges and disks, solid-phase
micro-extraction (SPME), headspace-SPME, XAD-2 resin and liquid-liquid
techniques. Sediment analyses used an ultrasonication extraction protocol.
A comparative ELISA method was also developed for trace level determina-
tions. Quantification was carried out by gas chromatography (GC) with elec-
tron capture (ECD), nitrogen phosphorus (NPD), flame photometric (FPD)
and mass spectrometric (MS) (including ion-trap tandem MS) detection.
High-performance liquid chromatography was also used in quantification
with detection using electrospray MS/MS and atmospheric chemical ioniza-
tion mass spectrometry (HPLC-ACPI-MS).
Approximately 800 water samples (and sediments from some areas) were
collectedwithinACEfromtheareasshowninFig.1.Theseincludedmari-
nas, harbours, estuaries and coastal waters and covered diverse European
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