Global Change and Mountains: Consequences, Responses and Opportunities - Impact of Global Changes on Mountains: Responses and Adaptation - page 104

subsistence agriculture constitutes the main source of rural livelihood. More
than 75% population of the region depends on this traditional subsistence
agriculture even though the availability of arable land is severely limited
and agricultural productivity is considerably poor (Tiwari and Joshi 2007).
This traditional agriculture is interlinked with forests and pastures and
fl ow of biomass energy from forests to agro-ecosystem is mediated through
livestock (Singh et al. 1984). During the recent past, a variety of changes
have emerged in the traditional resource use structure mainly in response
to growing population pressure and resultant increased demand of natural
resources, such as, arable land, grazing areas, fodder, fuel wood, etc. and
increasing socio-economic and political marginalization in the region
(Tiwari 2010, Palni et al. 1998). This facilitated and also compelled people to
utilize the critical natural resources, such as, land, water and forests beyond
their ecological carrying capacity. Large-scale deforestation, mining and
quarrying, extension of cultivation, excessive grazing, rapid urban growth
and development of tourism contributed signifi cantly to the depletion of
natural resources (Ives 1989, Tiwari 1995, 2000, 2008, 2010, Tiwari and Joshi
1997, 2005, 2007, 2009). Besides, the fast expansion of road linkages has
facilitated the rapid urbanization, emergence and growth of rural service
centres and increased access to markets. A large proportion of arable land
is being encroached upon by growing urbanization and expansion of
infrastructure, services and economic activities in the region (Tiwari and
Joshi 2011, Tiwari and Joshi 2005, Tiwari 2007). The process of economic
development in mountains usually leads to a weakening of traditional
cultures that have provided the foundation for local sustainability.
Moreover, there is a regional shift from traditional crop farming and
animal husbandry system to village-based production of fruits, vegetables,
fl owers and milk for sale both in the nearby and far-off markets, in the
villages situated in the infl uence zone of urban centres and market places,
and along and near roads (Singh et al. 1984). This has a large impact on
the traditional resource development process and land-use pattern. As a
result, critical natural resources, such as, land, water, forests, biodiversity,
pastures, etc., have depleted steadily and signifi cantly leading to their
conversion into degraded and wastelands in the region during the last 30
years. These land-use changes have an unprecedented adverse impact on
basic ecosystem services, particularly, water, biomass, soil-nutrients leading
to decline in productivity of rural ecosystem and undermining food and
livelihood insecurities in the Himalaya (Palni et al. 1998, Ives 1989, Tiwari
2000, 2002, Bisht and Tiwari 1996, Haigh 2002). Besides, these rapid land-use
changes, particularly conversion of forests into degraded and wasteland are
also contributing to ongoing climate changes (Tiwari 2010). The land-use
intensifi cations have disrupted the hydrological regimes of the Himalayan
headwaters (Tiwari and Joshi 2012a, Tiwari 2008, Ives 1989). The studies