Mainland Southeast Asia: Turmoil and Peace - Dragons and Tigers: A Geography of South, East and Southeast Asia - page 416

tween Burma and Thailand are centuries old. The Mongols
once invaded Burma, and the Chinese are still seeking
access to the Indian Ocean. Myanmar' s economy was once
dominated by Indian migrants. Thus, historic acrimony
shapes the country' s attitudes to outside powers.
The British East India Company , headquartered in
Calcutta, envisioned Burma as a buffer zone. Clashes
in Arakan (Rakhine State) adjacent to Bengal mush-
roomed into the first Anglo-Burmese War from 1824 to
1826. Superior arms gave victory to the British, and
Burma was forced to cede territory along the Bay of
Bengal. A second conflict erupted in 1850, whereby the
British acquired more territory in lower Burma. In
1885, the Burman king was exiled to Calcutta (even
the throne was removed), and Britain annexed Burma
in 1886.
Ruling from Calcutta, the British imposed alien
Indian forms of government. Lower Myanmar—the
Burman region—fell under direct rule, and the power of
local elites was squashed. In Upper Myanmar, indirect
rule left the hill tribes pretty much to their own devices.
Consequently , the minorities developed a stronger sense
of identity in opposition to the British-run region.
British colonial rule was founded on an Anglo-
Burmese and Indian elite. Indians were free to migrate to
Burma. By 1931, about 7 percent of the country was
Indian, and Rangoon was 53 percent Indian. Chinese
were recruited from British Malaya and Singapore. They
soon added to the population diversity , working in Shan
state mines and operating small businesses and rice
mills. Shan state is the largest province of Myanmar.
British efforts to develop the Burma delta regions in
the 1850s encouraged large-scale migrations of Burmans
from the arid northern regions. The Sittang and Ayeyarwady
deltas became prominent rice-producing regions. The area
under rice cultivation expanded from 800,000 acres
(1.9 million ha) in 1852 to around 6 million acres
(14.8 million ha) in 1901. The associated population in-
crease went from 1 million to 4 million. By the 1920s, pop-
ulation pressure had become a major problem: many
farmers were indebted, and tensions among Burmans, In-
dians, and Chinese were spiraling into violence.
Britain was content to have Burma as a rice, teak,
and mineral exporter. There was no attempt to industri-
alize the country . This plural society rested singularly on
primary economic activities. Moreover, economic posi-
tion was coincident with ethnicity .
Economic development under colonial rule was ac-
companied by the spread of Western education and the
rise of nationalist leaders. These were not only domi-

Figure 15-4
The Shan, estimated at 6 million, are one of four major
Theravada Buddhist ethnic groups in Burma. They live mainly
in the Shan State in the northern part of the country .
Photograph courtesy of B. A. Weightman.

In 1948, Burma was the world' s leading rice ex-
porter. After years of government mismanagement,
Burma has slumped into being the poorest country in
Southeast Asia. How did this happen?

POLITICAL BACKGROUND
Burma is the largest and most ethnically diverse state in
mainland Southeast Asia. The Burmans dominate the
alluvial plains and cities. T Tribal groups, flanking the bor-
ders of India, Bangladesh, China, Laos, and Thailand,
have long resisted Burman dominance. The Burmans are
mainly Buddhist. The Shan and Karen are predomi-
nantly Christian, and the Arakanese are split between
Christian and Muslim (Rohingyas). These religious dif-
ferences have deepened the rifts among Myanmar' s eth-
nic groups.
Burma has always been concerned about the ambi-
tions of its neighbors. War, competition, and animosity be-