East Asia: Center of the World - Dragons and Tigers: A Geography of South, East and Southeast Asia - page 289

rises, rest when the sun sets. The emperor is far away .” In
essence, while dynasties rose and fell, the fundamental
order of Chinese society persisted.
The first Ming emperor made valiant attempts to re-
open the Silk Route, sending repeated expeditions
against the Mongol rulers. Further, he repaired the
northern frontier and made Korea a vassal state. More
important, however, were Ming sea voyages.
Cheng-ho, a Muslim eunuch, sailed south to
Malacca (Melaka) in 1403 in order to establish diplo-
matic relations and expand China' s tributary system.
T Tributary states were required to trade with China and to
pay homage to the Chinese emperor. T Two years later,
Cheng-ho' s junks reached Ceylon, East Africa, and the
Arabian Sea. But it was Malacca that would become the
main regional entrepôt. Through it, thousands of Chi-
nese merchants spread out to Malaysia, Sumatra, and
Java. Then, in 1509, six Portuguese ships dropped an-
chor at Malacca. Soon they were seeking the land they
called “Cathay .” In 1514, the Portuguese were in Can-
ton' s harbor.
Between 1400 and 1600, China' s population rose
from 70 to 140 million. This growth spurt was accompa-
nied by an agricultural revolution that made rice 70 per-
cent of food production. The 100-day maturing Champa
rice covered valleys and hillsides. Then, in the 1550s
came the “American” crops: potatoes, maize, and
peanuts. The Chinese planted formerly undeveloped
hills with these crops and established new farming com-
munities. This agricultural revolution was not one of me-
chanical devices, it was one of crops. Unfortunately ,
clearing hillsides caused so much erosion that the rivers
silted up and flooded more than ever before.
Meanwhile, the Portuguese pressed their case for
trade. In 1557, the Chinese allowed them to build a
colony on the isthmus of Macao. Spanish colonists in
the Philippines were also trying to break into the lucra-
tive China trade. They even contemplated attacking
China in 1586.
The Japanese had been harassing China' s coastal
trade for years. Things were so bad that all settlements
30 miles (48 km) inland were removed, and maritime
trade was officially forbidden. This edict was largely
ignored, however, and in 1592 an invasion force of
200,000 Japanese attacked Korea and occupied Pusan,
Seoul, and Pyongyang. Since China held sway over
Korea, the Chinese in 1593 crossed the frozen Yalu River
and began years of fighting on the Korean peninsula. The
extraordinarily talented Korean Admiral Yi Sun-sin, who
had developed iron-covered ships called turtle ships,

managed to sink 70 Japanese ships in a single engage-
ment. As the Ming armies contrived to defeat the Japanese
on land, they were suddenly faced with an invasion from
the northeast. The Chinese defeated the Japanese in Korea
in 1593 but the Manchu tribes stood on the horizon.
They would ultimately take over all of China.

THE QING (CH'ING) DYNASTY (1644-1911)
Internal chaos, peasant rebellions, and Manchu inva-
sions combined to destroy the Ming, China' s last native
dynasty . The Manchus ruled as the Qing (Ch'ing) Dynasty .
Qing means “pure.” In many ways the Manchus became
more Chinese than the Chinese themselves. However,
there were looming problems facing Manchu rulers: the
population was growing at an unprecedented rate, and
food was in short supply . Foreign powers with their gun
boats were eroding Chinese sovereignty and missionaries
were pursuing converts. Western merchants were bar-
gaining for silk, tea, and art treasures. Meanwhile, peas-
ant uprisings threatened the entire fabric of imperial
government.
The Manchus were cousins of the Mongols, and
their appearance, clothing, customs, and writing sys-
tem were different from those of the Chinese. They in-
sisted that all males adopt the Manchu queue (pigtail),
otherwise they left Chinese culture alone. In fact, the
Manchus tried to inject more honesty and enthusiasm
into a government that had become corrupt and
complacent.
The Russians had been penetrating China' s north-
east borders, and Russian frontiersmen clashed with
Manchu border patrols from 1650 to 1689. Then the
Manchu emperor negotiated the T Treaty of Nerchinsk, the
first of many attempts to stabilize the Chinese-Russian
frontier. Emperor Ch'ien Lung settled colonists in
Xinjiang and sent troops to Tibet to counter Gurkha
incursions from Nepal. He also forced Annam and Burma
to recognize Manchu authority .
Meanwhile, China' s population was increasing,
probably doubling between 1700 and 1800. Ch'ien Lung
authorized huge public works to provide peasants em-
ployment in times of crisis. He encouraged farmers to
grow more wheat and, wherever possible, to plant cash
crops such as cotton, sugar, and indigo. Related indus-
tries were also established. His foresight provided a long
period of peace. Unfortunately , this was not to last. Euro-
pean powers and overseas Chinese were pressing at the
gates of commerce.