Biomedical Engineering Reference
In-Depth Information
Center located near Bastrop houses the largest colonies of
owl monkeys (Aotus nancymaae) and squirrel monkeys
(Saimiri sciureus and S. boliviensis) in the USA
(numbering more than 300 and 400 animals, respectively),
while both the New England, Tulane, and Yerkes National
Primate Research Centers maintain colonies of Saimiri
sciureus. Colonies of common marmosets (Callithrix jac-
chus) and cotton-top tamarins (Saguinus oedipus) are
maintained by the New England and Wisconsin National
Primate Research Centers and the Marmoset Research
Center at Oak Ridge, Tennessee, and the Southwest
National Primate Research Center houses a colony of
common marmosets
present (ybp), respectively), but members of the species
may have reached continental Southeast Asia as early as
1 million years ago (
Fooden, 2006
). While today the ranges
of M. fascicularis and M. mulatta overlap slightly in
Indochina, the southern boundary of the range of
M. mulatta probably expanded much further southward into
the range of M. fascicularis during at least the last two
major glacial maxima, around 150 000 and 20 000 ybp,
during which time extensive inter-species admixture
resulted in introgressive hybridization of the latter species.
Correspondingly, northward expansions of the ranges of
M. fuscata and M. cyclopis following these glacial maxima
probably led to admixture of both species with M. mulatta,
until both Taiwan and Honshu/Kyushu were isolated from
the mainland during Holocene times.
and squirrel monkeys
(Saimiri
boliviensis).
THE OLD WORLD PRIMATES
Phylogeography
Macaques
Macaques evolved in northern Africa more than 5 mya
thendispersedbothtosouthernEurope,viatheNearEast,
and eastward to Asia (
Delson, 1980
), reaching northern
India by at least 3.5 mya and China, Indochina, and insular
SoutheastAsiabyatleast2mya(
Abegg and Thierry,
2002
). By that time, or soon thereafter, a fascicularis-like
ancestor had diverged from the more ancient South and
Southeast Asian silenus clade, of which M. nemestrina is
a member species (
Groves, 2001
). Macaques belong to
four clades of species whose common ancestor was a sister
taxontoanancestrealM. sylvanus lineage that originated
in Africa. M. mulatta, Mcyclopis,andM. fuscata were the
last species to diversify from the fascicularis-like ancestor
cited above (
Fooden, 1976
). Their common ancestor
originated in insular Southeast Asia, perhaps Indonesia
(Java;
Delson, 1980
), where M. fascicularis is still widely
distributed, and reached mainland Southeast Asia (Indo-
china) before the middle of the Pleistocene (
Fooden,
2006
). There it diversified, expanding westward to India
andeastwardtoChina,thentoJapanandTaiwanbythe
late Pleistocene, where it evolved into M. fuscata and
M. cyclopis, respectively.
Fossil evidence is insufficient to assign a precise date or
location to the origin of M. fascicularis (
Fooden, 2006
), but
the presence of fossils similar to M. fascicularis on Java
indicates that the species was established in insular
Southeast Asia by at least 900 000 years ago (
van den
Bergh et al., 2001
), but probably much earlier. Dispersal
from previously isolated insular locations probably
occurred by rafting (in the case of the Philippines), by
human intervention (in the case of Mauritius), and/or by
overland travel during periods of low sea level during
Pleistocene times (e.g. near the second and/or penultimate
glacial maxima around 700 000 and 150 000 years before
Rhesus Macaques
The geographical range of rhesus macaques, extending
from Afghanistan in the west to the coast of the East China
Sea in the east, exceeds that of all other primates except
humans (
Wolfheim, 1983; Zhang et al., 1991
). Their range
is sufficiently extensive, and the antiquity of their dispersal
throughout that range sufficiently great (
Qi, 1979; Guo,
1980
), that major genetic differences have evolved among
regional populations of rhesus macaques that are reflected
in the domestic breeding stock in the USA. Fossil evidence
suggests that the ancestors of Japanese macaques had long
before spread to Japan, but periodic admixture between
them and the ancestors of Chinese rhesus macaques during
interglacial periods, but before maximum sea level rises,
might explain their greater similarity to Chinese than to
Indian rhesus macaques (
Smith and McDonough, 2005
).
The author has argued (
Smith and McDonough, 2005
) that
after expanding into India, and following a period of mutual
isolation, gene flow from Burma and/or Bangladesh east-
ward into India was re-established by at least Holocene
times, leading to sudden admixture between the eastern
emigrants and Indian rhesus macaques with significant
consequences for the genome structure of Indian rhesus
macaques.
Longtail Macaques
The geographical distribution of the longtail macaque, like
that of its closely related sister species, the rhesus macaque
(
Fooden, 1976
), is vast, and lies to the south of that of
rhesus macaques. The current range of longtail macaques
extends across 30 degrees of latitude and 35 degrees of
longitude, from the southern tip of Bangladesh and
southern Burma through the southern part of the
Indochinese peninsula, the Isthmus of Kra, the Malay
Peninsula, Sumatra, Borneo, Java, and the Lesser Sunda
Islands as far east as Timor, the Philippine Islands, and
