Biomedical Engineering Reference
In-Depth Information
species; and an import permit has already been issued. A
re-export certificate may be issued only if the specimen was
imported in accordance with the provisions of the
Convention and, in the case of a live animal or plant, if an
import permit has been issued. In the case of a live animal
or plant, it must be prepared and shipped to minimize any
risk of injury, damage to health, or cruel treatment.
The importation of CITES Appendix II species requires
an export permit or re-export certificate issued by the
Management Authority of the State of export or re-export.
An export permit may be issued only if the specimen was
legally obtained and if the export will not be detrimental to
the survival of the species. A re-export certificate may be
issued only if the specimen was imported in accordance
with the Convention. In the case of a live animal or plant, it
must be prepared and shipped to minimize any risk of
injury, damage to health or cruel treatment. No import
permit is needed unless required by national law.
In the USA, the US Fish and Wildlife Service is the lead
Federal agency responsible for implementing the Conven-
tion. CITES is harmonized across the EU, permitting
movement between member states.
In view of the special role that nonhuman primates play
in human health, the member states of WHO, acting
collectively during the 28th and 29th World Health
Assemblies, expressed their concern that primate species
were being endangered by the destruction of their natural
habitats, uncontrolled trade, and the lack of national and
international supervision during their capture and transport.
Resolutions WHA28.83 and WHA29.67 were approved
requesting the director-general to: “Facilitate the exchange
of both resources and technology between all countries
concerned and, with the help of other interested interna-
tional organizations as appropriate, to make expert advice
available to countries, at their request, on the conservation,
breeding, and utilization of nonhuman primates.”
Pan American Health Organization
The Pan American Health Organization (PAHO) (
http://
new.paho.org/
) is the Regional Office of the Americas for
the WHO. This organization provides expertise for WHO
regarding sources of New World nonhuman primates used
in research and testing. PAHO holds a letter of under-
standing with the Peruvian government and the Uni-
versidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos to support the
Centro de Reproducci
´
n y Conservaci
´
n de Primates No
Humanos, which was established in 1976 as a breeding
center for squirrel monkeys, tamarins, and owl monkeys.
Assuring Supply
Most research involving nonhuman primates has historically
been carried out remote from the source of supply of the
animals, for example in North America, Europe, Russia, and
Japan. Commercial users of nonhuman primates, such as
contract research organizations, have in place long-term
contracts with breeding facilities in countries where
primates are endemic or introduced, this is particularly in
Asia. Not surprisingly, given the crucial importance of
this research to national health and security, there have been
several national and international initiatives to assure supply.
These are often integrated with science funding mecha-
nisms, such that academic and government researchers are
obliged to use a centralized source of supply. A more recent
trend is the integration of breeding and research facilities in
the rapidly developing economies of Asia
USA
Great Apes
The use of great apes for research in the USA is both long-
standing and controversial. Such use has been banned in
The Netherlands, New Zealand, the UK, Sweden, Germany,
and Austria, and some corporations have voluntarily ceased
studies using great apes (e.g. GlaxoSmithKline,
http://
www.gsk.com/policies/GSK-public-position-on-NHP.pdf
).
In a similar trend, the NIH placed a breeding moratorium on
chimpanzees in the federally supported national primate
centers. Biomedical research in the USA that utilizes the
chimpanzee model focuses primarily on comparative
genetics, hepatitis, malaria, amyloid and prion disease, HIV,
vaccine development for a variety of viruses that infect
humans. In 2009 the Great Ape Protection Act
was reintroduced to Congress. This law would prohibit:
conducting invasive research on great apes; knowingly
breeding, possessing, renting, loaning, donating, purchasing,
selling, housing, maintaining, leasing, borrowing, trans-
porting, moving, delivering, or receiving a great ape for the
purpose of conducting such research; or using federal funds to
conduct such research. The Act defines “invasive research” as
research that may cause death, bodily injury, pain, distress,
fear, injury, or trauma to great apes, including drug testing or
exposure to a substance that may be detrimental to the ape's
health or psychological well-being. The Act requires the
World Health Organization
The World Health Organization (WHO) (
http://www.who.
int/
) is the directing and coordinating authority for health
issues within the United Nations system. All countries which
are Members of the United Nations may become members
of WHO by accepting its Constitution. Currently, there are
193 member States. The WHO's program on Zoonoses and
Veterinary Public Health addresses a number of diverse
global issues, and incudes the Global Early Warning System
for Major Animal Diseases, including Zoonoses (GLEWS),
wherein the WHO partners with the OIE and the Food and
Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.
